INSCRIPTIONS - ANCIENT ISRAELI CURSES

On 30 July 2022, I reported on the discovery of the Roman carved stone graffiti from Vindolanda, England, of “Secundinus, the shitter.” Ancient Romans were far from the only people in antiquity who cursed those they disagreed with. This column is about a couple of ancient inscribed curses found in Israel. Reported by Conny Waters online at AncientPages.com, they describe a pair of ancient curses that are adding to our knowledge of ancient Hebrew theology and history.

A 3,500-year-old stone tablet discovered in the City of David, Jerusalem in 2010. Courtesy of Institute for Biblical Studies and Ancient History.

The first of these is a 3,500-year-old stone tablet discovered in Jerusalem. Professor Gershon Galil, head of the Institute for Biblical Studies and Ancient History said the artifact was used in a ritual ceremony by priests or other important figures in the city who were apparently feuding with the city’s highest level official, the Governor. (Waters 7/13/2022)

The history of Jerusalem began with a settlement established near Gihon Spring between 4500 and 3500 BCE. The first recorded mention of this town was in a Middle Kingdom Egyptian text which recorded it as Rusalimum. By the 17^th century BCE Canaanites had built megalithic walls on the eastern side of Jerusalem to protect their water system. (Wikipedia)

A drawing of the 3,500-year-old Jerusalem stone inscription. Courtesy Prof. Gershon Galil.

“The inscription contains 20 words and 63 letters in the Proto-Canaanite script, an early Semitic alphabet, and a predecessor to modern alphabets used in the region.” (Waters 7/13/2022) Note that this tablet is not written in Hebrew, but in proto-Canaanite, an early Semitic alphabet and forerunner of modern alphabets from the area.

“The stone tablet is inscribed with the repeated phrase, ‘cursed, cursed, you will surely die, and singles out the ‘governor of the city,’ according to Galil’s translation,’ the Times of Israel reports.” (Waters 7/13/2022)

The second curse tablet is from the period of Israeli Jerusalem. “According to the Bible, the Israelite history of the city began in c. 1000 BCE, with King David’s sack of Jerusalem, following which Jerusalem became the City of David and capital of the United Kingdom of Israel.” (Wikipedia)

The lead curse tablet, discovered in Israel, is the oldest known Hebrew text. Credit Michael C. Luddeni.

This other curse tablet is quite small and, instead of stone, is engraved in early Hebrew on a folded piece of lead. “Scientists have announced the discovery of a rare ancient tablet that has the potential to re-write history. The tiny tablet is older than the Dead Sea Scrolls and was unearthed on Mount Ebla in Israel. Measuring only two centimeters by two centimeters in size, the engraving on the table has now been translated and researchers argue the engraving could offer proof that the events of the Bible occurred hundreds of years earlier than previously believed.

The small ancient lead tablet was discovered by Dr. Scott Stripling, director of the Archaeological Studies Institute at the Bible Seminary in Katy (Texas), who together with her team visited Mount Ebal, one of the two mountains in the immediate vicinity of the city of Nablus in the West Bank, and forms the northern siede of the valley in which Nablus is situated, the southern side being formed by Mount Gerizim. - - - The inscription on the discovered tablet reads: ‘Cursed, cursed, cursed – Cursed by the God Yahweh. You will die cursed. Cursed you will surely die. Cursed by Yahweh – cursed, cursed, cursed.’

Examinations of the artifact suggest the tablet is at least 200 years older than any other Hebrew text in existence.” (Waters 3/25/2022) If this is truly the ‘oldest Hebrew text in existence’ I find it to be very interesting that it is such a violent curse. This part of history is seemingly not starting from a very loving place.

Joshua's Altar and Mount Ebal, Photograph israel-agency.com.

Mount Ebal has a historic place in the Bible. In references displaying a great deal more stick than carrot - “In Deuteronomy 27:15-26, Moses instructs the Levites to lead all the people of Israel from the top of Mount Ebal in a series of 11 curses against anyone who partakes in a variety of actions such as making an idol, dishonoring their mother or father, or moving their neighbor’s boundary stone.

In Joshua 8:30, Joshua builds an altar on Mount Ebal following his battle with the Ai, makes a burnt offering to God, and repeats the curses of Moses.” (Waters 3/25/2022)

These instances all seem to reinforce the image of the vengeful God from the Old Testament and seemingly, this ancient curse fits right in.

 NOTE: Some images in this posting were retrieved from the internet with a search for public domain photographs. If any of these images are not intended to be public domain, I apologize, and will happily provide the picture credits if the owner will contact me with them. For further information on these reports you should read the original reports at the sites listed below.

REFERENCES:

Waters, Conny, 2022, 3,500-Year-Old Stone Inscribed With A Curse Against The City’s Governor Discovered In Jerusalem, 13 July 2022, AncientPages.com, accessed 9 July 2022.

Waters, Conny, 2022, Rare ‘Cursed’ Tablet Predating The Dead Sea Scrolls Discovered On Mount Ebal Could Re-Write History – Scientists Say, 25 March 2022, AncientPages.com, accessed on 7 July 2022.

ANCIENT ROMAN GRAFFITI WAS INSULTING TOO – POOR SECUNDINUS:

 There have been a few times when I desperately wanted to leave obscene graffiti for a boss or co-worker, but I never have. Apparently the ancient Roman soldiers who occupied Vindolanda on Hadrian’s Wall in upper England had less restraint. At least one of them carved his attitude towards another in stone.

Vindolanda, England. Internet photograph, public domain.

“Vindolanda (translated as ‘white field’ or ‘white moor’) was a Roman auxiliary fort, situated on the fringes of the Roman Empire near Hadrian’s Wall to guard a major highway called the Stanegate. No less than nine Roman forts were built of timber or stone at Vindolands from around AD 85 to AD 370, creating one of the most complex archaeological sites in Britain and a unique cultural legacy of frontier life.” (HeritageDaily 2022) These were not primitive camps for the troops, but fairly sophisticated villages with eventual stone-built buildings, and a full life for their inhabitants, including apparently a busy social life.

A birthday party invitation from Claudia Severa to Sulpicia Lepidina. Image thevintagenews.com

“Nestled in the picturesque Northumberland countryside, Vindolanda with its fort and settlement is a treasure trove of everyday life during the Roman occupation of Britain and beyond. What makes this part of the Hadrian’s Wall World Heritage Site so exceptional, is that some of the nearly 2,000-year-old artefacts uncovered reveal human emotions and feelings. Perhaps the most famous example is the handwritten birthday invitation where one woman very politely requests that her ‘dearest sister’ join her to celebrate her birthday.”  (Galloway 2022) At Vindolanda, the soil has a high content of clay which seals off oxygen from buried items, leaving to the survival of a wide range of artifacts made with perishable materials that just do not survive in most other contexts.

Dylan Herbert with his discovery at Vindolanda. Illustration from BBC.

“The latest discovery made at Vindolanda gives us a fascinating window into the emotions of someone in the 3^rd century, and this time they are not so polite. Dylan Herbert, a retired Biochemist from South Wales made the discovery on 19^th May, towards the end of his second week volunteering on the excavations. Dylan commented ‘I’d been removing a lot of rubble all week and to be honest this stone had been getting in my way. I was glad when I was told I could take it out of the trench. It looked from the back like all the others, a very ordinary stone, but when I turned it over, I was startled to see some clear letters. Only after we removed the mud did I realize the full extent of what I’d uncovered, and I was absolutely delighted.’” (Galloway 2022)

Secundinus "the Shitter." Illustration Vindolanda Trust.

“The stone is fairly small, measuring 40 cm wide by 15 cm tall (15 inches by 6 inches). Experts in Roman epigraphy recognized the lettering as a mangled version of Secundinus cacator, which translates into (ahem) ‘Secundinus, the shitter.’ The penus image merely added insult to injury – a clever subversion of the traditional interpretation of a phallus as a positive symbol of fertility. The Vindolanda site now has 13 phallic carvings, more than have been discovered at any other dig site along Hadrian’s wall.” (Ouellette 2022)

“Dr. Andrew Birley, Director of Excavations and CEO of the Vindoland Trust commented: ‘The recovery of an inscription, a direct message from the past, is always a great event on a Roman excavation, but this one really raised our eyebrows when we deciphered the message on the stone. It’s author clearly had a big problem with Secundinus and was confident enough to announce their thoughts publicly on a stone. I have no doubt that Secundinus would have been less than amused to see this when he was wandering around the site over 1,700 years ago.’” (Galloway 2022) Having always heard that Roman discipline was quite strict, and often brutal, I have to wonder if this message points to resentment from someone whom Secundinus had disciplined, or was perhaps going to lead to a session of such discipline for handing such an insult to Secundinus.

NOTE: Images in this posting were retrieved from the internet with a search for public domain photographs. If any of these images are not intended to be public domain, I apologize, and will happily provide the picture credits if the owner will contact me with them. For further information on these reports you should read the original reports at the sites listed below.

REFERENCES:

Galloway, Sonya, 2022, Ancient Graffiti Uncovered, 26 May 2022, https://www.vindolanda.com/news/ancient-graffiti, accessed on 7 July 2022.

HeritageDaily, 2022, Ancient graffiti insulting “Secundinus, the shitter” discovered at Roman Vindolanda, https://www.heritagedaily.com/2022/06/ancient-graffiti-insulting-secundinus-the-shitter-discovered-at-roman-vindolanda/143777, accessed on 13 July 2022.

Ouellette, Jennifer, 2022, Ancient Roman soldier carved a phallus with a personal insult in this stone, 15 June 2022, https://arstechnica.com/science, accessed on 11 July 2022.

A VERY EARLY ABECEDARY:

Inscription on a limestone

ostracon. Tomb of Sennifer,

Egypt. Photo timesofisrael.com.

Public domain.

The oldest known inscription in an early version of our alphabet (well almost) is an ostracon, an inscribed piece of limestone discovered in 1995 in Egypt, in the tomb of Sennefer (or Senneferi). The text is actually written in hieratic, a form of Egyptian hieroglyphs, but the words are of foreign (not Egyptian) linguistic origin, and appear to be mostly Semitic.(Jarus 2018) The earliest forerunner to our alphabet was written in Semitic language scripts. This inscription has recently been analyzed and deciphered, and is thought to represent an abecedary. 

"An abecedarium (or abecedary) is an inscription consisting of the letters of an alphabet, almost always listed in order. Typically, abecedaria (or abecedaries) are practice exercises." (Wikipedia)

Painted mural, Tomb of Sennefer,

Luxor, Egypt. Public domain.

Writing in the Times of Israel (22 May 2018),  Amanda Borschel-Dan recorded that the record was painted upon a limestone flake, and was recovered from the tomb of Sennefer at Luxor. "Newly deciphered Egyptian symbols on a 3,400-year-old ostracon from Luxor's Tomb of Senneferi appears to be the first written evidence of the ABC letter order of the early Semitic alphabet, according to a University of British Columbia Egyptologist. In his article, "A Double Abecedary? Halaham and 'Abgad on the TT99 Ostracon," Prof. Thomas Schneider concludes that a small (approximately 10 x 10 centimeters, or about 4 x 4 inches) double-sided limestone flake was used by Egyptian scribes as a mneumonic device to remember the letter orders of not one, but two forms of early Semitic alphabets." (Borschel-Dan 2018)

"Three of the words start with the ancient equivalent of B, C and D, creating what may be a mnemonic phrase. Thomas Schneider, a professor of Egyptology and Near Eastern Studies at the University of British Columbia, reported the discovery in a paper published recently in the Bulletin of American Schools of Oriental Research. This discovery "would be the first historical attestation of 'our' alphabet sequence," he told Live Science in an email." (Jarus 2018) 

"One side of the limestone piece contains a series of Egyptian hieroglyphic symbols that represent the words "bibiya-ta" (a word that can mean "earth snail"), "garu" (a word that can mean "dove") and "da'at" (a word that can mean "kite"), Schneider wrote in his paper. More than 3,000 years ago , the "g" would have represented the sound that "c" does today, Schneider told Live Science. This means that the first letter of each of these words is the ancient equivalent of "BCD."  (Jarus 2018)

"The other side of the inscribed piece of limestone also contains a series of Semitic words written in hieratic Schneider said. The first letters of the first four words in that series - the letters "hlhm" - represent the first few letters of another ancient alphabetic sequence, one that never became as popular as the ancient forerunner of our alphabet. These words form a phrase that means, "to make pleasant the one who bends reed, water [according] to the Qab." The "qab" is a unit of measurement that equals about 1.2 liters, Schneider wrote. This phrase likely helped the person who wrote this inscription to remember the first few letters of this alphabetic sequence, Schneider said." (Jarus 2018)

"Whoever wrote these inscriptions 3,400 years ago may have been trying to remember the start of both alphabetic sequences, Schneider said. Sennefer(i) was an official who dealt with Egyptian foreign affairs and likely understood the Semitic languages that were used in the Eastern Mediterranean, Schneider said." (Jarus 2018) So, these inscriptions were not written in our alphabet, but in Egyptian hieratic, and were not written in our language, but in the ancient Semitic language. This  ancient Semitic language was generally written by the Semites themselves in a version of the Phoenician script that later evolved into our alphabet. Even if the connection to us is a little tenuous, a written inscription of that age deserves attention.

NOTE: Some images in this posting were retrieved from the internet with a search for public domain photographs. If any of these images are not intended to be public domain, I apologize, and will happily provide the picture credits if the owner will contact me with them. For further information on these reports you should read the originals at the sites listed below.

REFERENCES:

Borschel-Dan, Amanda

2018 Aleph is for 'Elta: First Written Record of Semitic Alphabet, From 15th Century BCE, Found in Egypt, 22 May 2018, Times of Israel, https://www.timesofisrael.com/first-written-record-of-semitic-alphabet-from-15th-century-bce-found-in-egypt/

Jarus, Owen

2018 Earliest Version of our Alphabet Possibly Discovered, Live Science, May 16, https://www.livescience.com/62580-earliest-alphabet-discovered.html

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Current_events.

https://rmpbs.pbslearningmedia.org

METEOROLOGICAL RECORDS IN ROCK ART - CHINESE CAVE INSCRIPTIONS:

Chinese drought inscription,

Davu Cave, Qinling mountains,

China. From Ghose, LiveScience,

August 20, 2015.

A subject in rock art that has long fascinated me is evidence of verifiable events recorded on the rocks. As everyone's daily life is directly impacted by meteorology, that is one area that we should expect to find evidence of in rock inscriptions or pictures. An example of this can be found in inscriptions in Davu Cave, in southeastern China. Located in the Qinling Mountains, this cave contains written inscriptions of droughts occurring in the region and their impact upon the population.

Writing for LiveScience on August 20, 2015, Tia Ghose cited an August 13 article from the journal Scientific Reports that outlined a series of droughts in that area and the inscriptions that record them. The droughts were confirmed by analysis of chemical elements in stalagmites from the cave. Study co-author Sebastian Breitenbach, a paleoclimatologist at the University of Cambridge, England explained that the team analyzed the proportions of carbon, uranium, oxygen, and other isotopes, in stalagmites  to detect climate changes over time that signaled droughts." The amounts of radioactive uranium and carbon, which decay at a known rate, tied specific parts of the stalagmite to particular historic times." (Ghose 2015)  And, "because the water seeping into the cave was likely groundwater, the levels of oxygen and carbon isotopes could provide information about surface conditions outside the cave. The team found that oxygen and carbon levels rose when rainfall was low, suggesting that those markers could reliably reveal when drought conditions occurred." (Ghose 2015)

Comparing this scientific record then with cave inscriptions revealed a very accurate correlation.

"One inscription, which is dated to July 27, 1596, says directly that there is a big drought, and that the writers had come to the cave to get water and pray for rain. Another, dating to 1891m reads: 'On May 24th, 17th year of the Emperor Guangxu period, Qing Dynasty, the local mayor, Huaizong Shu, led more than 200 people into the cave to get water. A fortune-teller named Zhenrong Ran prayed for rain during the ceremony.'" (Ghose 2015)

"Another inscription mentions a Dragon Lake that may have been in the cave." (Ghose 2015)

All in all, records of seven droughts over the past 500 years corresponded quite well with the recorded droughts in the cave formations. The team even used their data from the chemical record and the inscriptions to construct a model to predict future periods of drought in that region. That model predicts that "in the next decade, China is in for more severe and more frequent droughts, though the model can't predict exactly where or when the droughts will occur." (Ghose 2015)

Rock art, not only as a record of the past, but as a predictor of the future. How about that?

REFERENCES:

http://www.livescience.com/51929-cave-graffiti-reveals-drought.html

MORE EL MORRO ROCK INSCRIPTIONS – DIEGO DE VARGAS, 1692:

El Morro, Cibola County, New Mexico.

The site of El Morro rock in Cibola County, in western New Mexico, has seen much history. This large rock outcrop has a permanent pool of water in that arid environment, and prehistorically had a pueblo built on top of the rock. Ancestral Puebloan rock art can be found on the cliffs and spires of El Morro, as can the inscriptions and names of later comers. Thus, El Morro is literally a history book of the region imprinted with those stories and messages from the past.

Ancestral Puebloan images, El Morro, Cibola County,

New Mexico. Photograph Peter Faris, June 1993.

One of these was the inscription of Diego de Vargas Zapata Luján Ponce de León y Contreras. “Diego de Vargas Zapata Luján Ponce de León y Contreras (born in Spain, 1643 – 1704), commonly known as Don Diego de Vargas, was a Spanish governor of the New Spain territory of Santa Fe de Nuevo México, today the US states of New Mexico and Arizona, titular 1690-1692, effective 1692-1696 and 1703 – 1704. He is most famous for leading the reconquest of the territory in 1692 following the Pueblo Revolt of 1680. This reconquest is commemorated annually during the Fiestas de Santa Fe in the city of Santa Fe.” (Wikipedia)

Diego de Vargas - left (p.242), and the

de Vargas coat of arms - right (p. 243),

Kessell, Kiva, Cross, and Crown, 1979.

“Gov. Diego de Vargas, capable, cocksure, and visibly daring, on February 22, 1691, assumed command of the dispirited New Mexico colony in exile. He found El Paso a hole. The poverty, misery, and constant dread of Indian attack had driven many New Mexico refugee families to desert the El Paso settlements. A muster of men capable of bearing arms, counting not only the poorly equipped presidial garrison organized in 1683 but Indian allies as well, turned out scarcely three hundred in all.” (Kessell 1979:243) Yet in 1692 he had organized troops and colonists to begin the reconquest of New Mexico.

“Vargas made a dashing entrada, took Santa Fe, then occupied by Indians, without bloodshed, and granted forgiveness to the rebels. He made excursions to many pueblos on and near the Rio Grande, all of which tendered obedience, and at the end of October he struck out west for Acoma, Zuni and the Hopi pueblos. Submission of the pueblo of Acoma was obtained, without the use of force, and the expedition proceeded toward Zuni. The General’s journal entry for Saturday, November 8, 1692 records the arrival of the expedition at El Morro – “a large rock, very high and broad, at the foot of which is a cavity, like an orange, and in it water may be collected if there is any; there is no certainty of finding it supplied with water but God be praised at present there is great abundance. . . “” (Slater 1961:13)

De Vargas inscription,  El Morro, Cibola County,

New Mexico. Photograph Peter Faris, June 1993.

Near this tank (pool of water) is found the De Vargas inscription of 1692, which may have been inscribed by De Vargas or by one of his men, and which says:

“Aqui estuvo de General Don Diego

de Vargas, quien consuisto

a nuestra Santa Fe y a la Real

Corona todo el Nuevo

Mexico a su costa.

Ano de 1692.”  (www.cr.nps.gov/history)

“Here was the General Don Diego

De Vargas, who conquered

For our Holy Faith, and for the Royal

Crown, all the New

Mexico, at his expense,

Year of 1692” (Slater 1961:13)

Close-up of De Vargas inscription,  El Morro, Cibola

County, New Mexico. Photograph Peter Faris, June 1993.

General De Vargas surprisingly was welcomed at both Zuni and Hopi and he returned to Zuni on November 27, 1692. They passed El Morro again on their way back to the Rio Grande and it is also possible that the inscription dates to this visit. (Slater 1961:14)

“De Vargas reconquered the Pueblo Indians after their bloody rebellion in 1680 and succeeded in bringing many colonists from Spain to take up homes in this country. He lies buried under the altar of the parish church in Santa Fe.” (www.cr.nps.gov/history)

I will cover a number of the other El Morro inscriptions in future postings on RockArtBlog.

REFERENCES:

http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/glimpses2/glimpses10.htm

http://www.rshantz.com/Scenes/NewMexico/ElMorro/20080601Carve06.htm

Kessell, John L.

1979    Kiva, Cross, and Crown, the Pecos Indians and New Mexico, 1540-1840, National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington D.C.

Slater, John M.

1961    El Morro, Inscription Rock, New Mexico, The Plantin

           Press, Los Angeles.

Wikipedia

CORONATTO – IS THIS AN AUTHENTIC RECORD OF CORONADO?

Possible Coronado inscription. McGlone, Barker,

and Leonard, 1994, p. 74-1.

Possible Coronado inscription. McGlone, Barker,

and Leonard, 1994, p. 74-1.

In the western Oklahoma panhandle this inscription can be found on a cliff. It purports to record the passage through this area of Francisco Vasquez de Coronado y Lujan on his 1541 expedition searching for the wealthy civilization called Quivira to the east and says “Coronatto, 1541”. If authentic, it is the earliest known historic inscription in North America.

Close-up of the possible Coronado inscription.

McGlone, Barker, and Leonard, 1994, p. 74-1

“It was early fall, the time when the maize plants begin turning brown, 1540. Twenty-two summers had passed since the conqueror Hernán Cortés first stepped ashore on the mainland of Mexico, to trade he said. Now, eighteen hundred miles northwest of that dank tropical coast, a small column of helmeted Spanish soldiers marched across high, semi-arid country through arroyos, chamisa, and piñon to receive homage from the fortress-pueblo of Cicuye.

Even though they numbered not more than twenty, this medieval-looking detachment from the expedition of Gov. Francisco Vázquez de Coronado faithfully represented the conquering forces of Catholic Spain in America. The youthful captain, who wore a coat of mail and rode a horse covered with leather or quilted cotton armor, hailed his earthly Holy Caesarean Catholic Majesty in the same breath as his Heavenly Father.” (Kessell 1979:3)

Coronado's expedition by Frederic Remington.

Map of the route of Coronado's expedition. Wikipedia.

After searching the Llano Estecado of eastern New Mexico and northwestern Texas his party met a band of Native Americans that he called the Teyas, probably a Caddoan speaking group.

“The Teyas told Coronado that he was going the wrong direction. Quivira lay to the north. After more than thirty days journey, Coronado found a river larger than any he had seen before. This was the Arkansas and the spot where he reached it was probably a few miles east of present day Dodge City, Kansas. The Spaniards and their Indian allies followed the Arkansas northeast for three days and found Quivirans hunting buffalo. Coronado reached Quivira itself after a few more days of traveling. Coronado believed that there were 25 settlements in Quivira. The Quivirans were simple people. Both men and women were nearly naked. Coronado spent twenty-five days among the Quivirans trying to learn of richer kingdoms just over the horizon. He found nothing but straw-thatched villages of up to two hundred houses and fields containing corn, beans, and squash. A copper bell was the only evidence of wealth he discovered. The Quivirans were almost certainly the ancestors of the Wichita people.” (http://en.wikipedia.org )

Quivira, mid-1890s excavation, Archaeology, Nov.-Dec. 2013, p. 10.

Quivira - 1970 excavation, Archaeology, Nov.-Dec. 2013, p. 10.

“In the mid-1890s, the site now known as El Cuartelejo was excavated by two professors from the University of Kansas. They found the lower portion of stone walls that formed the foundation of a pueblo, inside of which were artifacts such as stone and bone tools, ornaments, and pottery sherds, some of which came from the pueblos of the Southwest. In 1970, Tom Witty of the Kansas State Historical Society excavated further, and unearthed the entire pueblo floor, hearths, and postholes. – El Cuartelejo – was a seven-room pueblo – covering about 1,600 square feet.” (Banyasz 2013:10) So, Quivira was not quite up to Coronado’s expectations. It had been built and occupied by Taos Indians in the 1600s in what is now Western Kansas, and was later occupied by a group of Picuris Indians between 1696 and 1706. (Banyasz 2013:10) So, far from the 25 cities wealthy with gold that Coronado expected, it turned out to be a small 7-room pueblo. Quite a disappointment that.

Proposed route marker from Coronado expedition. 

Bill McGlone, Ted Barker, and Phil Leonard, 1994.

Proposed route marker from Coronado expedition. 

Bill McGlone, Ted Barker, and Phil Leonard, 1994.

Some historians claim that Coronado carved the Castilian-style inscription "Coronatto, 1541" on Autograph Rock near Boise City in Cimarron County. They also ascribe a compass-like marking in the area to the same source and believe it to be a route-marker. As I stated above this would, if authentic, be the earliest known historic inscription in North America, but its authenticity is debatable. That leaves the Don Juan de Oñate inscription on Morro rock, Cibola County, New Mexico as probably the earliest known historic inscription since the Oñate inscription is agreed by historians to be genuine. But isn’t this an intriguing possibility?

REFERENCES:

Banyasz, Malin Grunberg

2013    Off The Grid, Archaeology, November/December 2013, Vol. 66, No. 6, p.10.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisco_V%C3%A1squez_de_Coronado

Kessell, John L.

1979    Kiva, Cross, and Crown, the Pecos Indians and New Mexico 1540-1840, National Park Service, U. S. Department of the Interior, Washington D. C.

McGlone, Bill, Ted Barker, and Phil Leonard

1994    Petroglyphs of Southeast Colorado and the Oklahoma Panhandle, Mithras, Inc., Kamas, UT.

A CHINESE INSCRIPTION IN BRITISH COLUMBIA:

Field sketch by James Burton. York, Daley, and Arnett,

They Write Their Dreams on the Rocks Forever, p. 66.

When confronted with the claims of the epigraphy enthusiasts in rock art studies one of the accusations that us epigraphy non-believers hurl at them is that they try to make every abstract shape into an old world inscription. Since the heyday of Barry Fell abstract symbols have been proclaimed to be inscriptions by ancient Basque, Semitic, Celtic, even Chinese, visitors to Pre-Columbian North America. I was therefore quite pleased to find this published example of an authentic Chinese inscription in British Columbia, with the backstory that explains it.

“Rock Writing at EbRj62, Annie Zetco York.

In addition to the aboriginal rock writings, this site is noteworthy for the presence of Chinese calligraphy and drawings made with black ink. These Chinese writings and drawings, some of which have been executed on top of the aboriginal writings, are probably the work of Chinese placer miners, who came to the Lytton area in 1859, a year after the start of the Fraser River gold rush. The Chinese are known to have worked the gravel terraces above this site and at least one man, Ah Chung, homesteaded nearby.

Most of the Chinese drawings and calligraphy (including the drawing of a human figure and what looks like a serpent) are located to the right of the recessed alcove with its aboriginal writings at the downstream edge of the site. In August, 1988, I visited this site with my brother-in-law James Burton who, after having lived and worked near Beijing for several years, is fluent in the Chinese language. He found many of the inked characters too eroded to decipher, particularly where sections of calligraphy had disappeared due to the spalling off of certain areas. However, he was able to determine that the Chinese writing recorded the names of men, presumably the gold prospectors themselves, and the names of women – probably their mothers, fiancées or wives back in China. The best preserved character, isolated from the other short texts, is the Chinese character for “clear/clean water” or “spring.”

Another group of characters, superimposed on the rock writings of Fig. 46, is a date which reads” In the tenth year of the ruling emperor.” Unfortunately the emperor’s name is obliterated, but it is possible to identify the approximate date of the Chinese characters by reference to the imperial genealogy.

The first Chinese arrived in 1859 which was the beginning of the tenth year of reign of Shen Fung. He was succeeded in 1861 by Tung Chi, who reigned until 1875 when he in turn was succeeded by Guang Xu. Guang Xu reigned until 1908 and was succeeded by a child, the last emperor who was deposed three years later during the social revolution. The descriptive date written here refers either to the tenth year (of the) reign of Shen Fung, being 1859-60, the tenth year (of the) reign of Tung Chi, 1871-72, or the tenth year of the reign of Guang Xu, 1885-86. The Chinese writing thus dates between 1859 and 1886.” (York 1993:65-66)

I have to give the epigraphers this one, and it appeals to my sense of justice and fair play that I can write a posting about an inscription that actually is in readable and interpretable Chinese.  路 要 走 (way to go) epigraphers.

REFERENCE:

York, Annie, Richard Daley, and Chris Arnett,

1993   They Write Their Dreams on the Rocks Forever, Rock Writings in the Stein River Valley of British Columbia, Talonbooks, Vancouver, B.C.

HISTORIC INSCRIPTIONS - GENERAL CROOK:

Rock art researcher and expert Dr. Lawrence Loendorf has recently recorded a historic inscription which reads “G Crook 1876” from a location in an area where Crook was known to have been that year. He reports that “it may be legitimate and represent General George Crook the famous western Indian fighter”. Larry is very interested in trying to find other examples of inscriptions of General Crook “to see if there are matching attributes”.

"G Crook 1876" inscription field sketch.

General Crook was figure of great importance in the history of the later years of the Indian Wars in the West. A petroglyph panel in Canyon Pintado in Moffat County, Colorado, has been identified by locals as “General Crook’s Horse” (see below). According to local historian Hartley Bloomfield, the petroglyph was created by a Ute Indian who had scouted for General Crook and commemorated it with this image. Also, according to Mr. Bloomfield, the markings on the side of the horse had been confirmed as a horse brand which would be consistent with General Crook’s time and situation.

"General Crook's Horse",

Canyon Pintado, Colorado.

If you know of any other inscriptions (or maybe have heard rumors of them) from regions where General George Crook could have campaigned or passed through on his travels please respond in the comment box below, and be sure to include contact information so Dr. Loendorf can contact you personally. This is your opportunity to play a part in recovering information from an important era in the history of the West, and to collaborate with a bona fide rock art expert in this study. Send us your comments.