CARVED STONE MODEL LANDSCAPES – PART 1:

This subject began as a comparison of features at only a couple of sites, but it grew out of hand as I dug deeper. This will be part one with part two to come next week. This still represents a selection. There will be many sites I have not addressed, but you cannot include everything.

The Sayhuite carved stone, Peru. Internet image, public domain.

The phenomenon of stones that have been carved to represent landscapes is a fascinating one. If it is a somewhat faithful representation of a known landscape then it could be classified as a map, but maps are usually thought of as fairly low relief carvings, representing the features with lines, not in three dimensions. A high relief carving of a landscape probably needs its own category, although where the line is between high and low relief carving is certainly not definite. These can be found in a number of places, but one of the most impressive is the Sayhuite Stone in Peru.

Esther Pazstory (1998) described the Incan Sayhuite stone in her book on Pre-Columbian art. "The lower half is plain, but on the top, among all the miniature courts and steps, crouch felines and other animals. Channels flow from the top to the edge of the stone. Although no sixteenth-century account exists to explain this stone, it sums up many of the features of Andean art. There is a strong respect for the form of the natural boulder from which it is carved, the architectural forms provide the honorific manmade aspect, while the animal figures refer directly to the powers of the cosmos. Man creates the network, the system, the idea, and works through the organization and essence of things rather than through his own theatrical appearance in images." (Pasztory 1998:163) While this is a very flowery description, the Sayhuite Stone perhaps deserves such enthusiasm.

The Sayhuite carved stone, Peru. Internet image, public domain.

Most of the analyses of the Sayhuite Stone assume that the channels carved into the top of the stone are there for hydraulic purposes of one form or another (although one fringie I read said they were to pour liquid mercury into). This is assumed to be in conjunction with some form of ritual. There are a few students of the subject who assume it is for educational demonstrations, to teach budding Inca hydraulic engineers how water flows. This interpretation does not work for me. I imagine that they had ceremonial importance.

Agricultural terraces carved on boulders, Sondondo Valley, Peru, Powell, page 36.

But the Sayhuite Stone is far from the only carved landscape in the Inca Empire. Eric Powell (2026) wrote in Archaeology Magazine of a number of carved stone landscapes in southern Peru’s Sondondo Valley. “In centuries past, the valley’s residents created stone monuments near the ancient road that commemorated their deep connection to the landscape and their claim to the densely packed terraces that they, and their ancestors created throughout the valley. Called piedras maquetas, or ‘stone models,’ these rock sculptures are maps of the Sondondo Valley’s agricultural terraces carved by ancient farmers on boulders and rock outcroppings more than 500 years ago.” (Powell 2026:37) Powell goes on to mention that “dozens of such maps, known as piedras maquetas” have been found in three Andean valleys.

Agricultural terraces, Sondondo Valley, Peru, Powell, page 40. (for scale notice the human figure in the center)

One location Powell illustrated overlooking the Sondondo Valley has a grouping of boulders that have representations of agricultural terraces on them, each boulder presumable representing a different mountain which has terraced slopes.

Freddy Leon Nina and Antonio Pizarro Ñahui described the Sondondo Valley in their 2025 study. “This area is characterized by its impressive Andean landscape and its archeological richness. Located at an altitude ranging from 2,500 to 4,000 meters above sea level, the valley is surrounded by rugged mountains and deep valleys. Its precise location allows access to a variety of microclimates, which has favored the presence of various forms of agriculture and ancestral hydraulic systems. The Sondondo Valley is also known for its terraces, irrigation models and rock art.” (Nina and Ñahui 2025:162) The irrigation models that Nina and Ñahui mention are the terraced boulders that we are looking at herein.

Agricultural terraces carved on a boulder, Sondondo Valley, Peru, Powell, page 39.

In the Sondondo Valley itself is found a boulder or rock outcropping carved with agricultural terraces near the ancient Qhapaq Ñan, Royal Road of the Incas. (Powell 2026:39)

Yuraq Qaqa, Colca Valley, Peru, Powell, page 39.

Another site, in the Colca Valley of Peru has a 35 foot tall boulder that is thought to have been carved to represent a map of the entire region. It is known as Yuraq Qaqa with translates to ‘white rock.’ (Powell 2026:38)

Powell concludes that it is possible that once ancient heads of important families in nearby villages held annual ceremonies, pouring liquid over these maquetas “in the hopes that watering these fields of stone would ensure bountiful harvests in the year ahead.” (Powell 2026:41) Apparently something ensured their harvests because the valley has been inhabited and farmed for a very long time.

Q'enqo stone near Cusco, Peru. Internet image, public domain.

Another impressive carved stone landscape is found at the Q’enqo Archaeological Complex near Cusco, Peru. Q’enqo originally included carved stone tunnels and passages as well as buildings which the conquering Spanish destroyed as much of it as they could. But, remaining elements include a massive stone outcrop with a carved top. This one consists of what looks like carved seats and stairways, with basins, channels and enclosures resembling an urban scene. One feature of this carved stone actually gave Q’enqo its name. “The (zigzag) channel has given Q’enqo its name. The Quechua word to describe such a zigzag is q’enqo, but the zigzag channel functioned as a paccha, which is a tool used for channeling liquids during divination rituals. An authoritative study of pacchas was conducted by Rebecca Carrion Cachet (1955) in which she illustrates several portable wooden pouring devices with zigzag channels. At Q’enqo Grande, a liquid would have flowed down the zigzag, which makes a slight turn and eventually splits in two ends. It may have been important which direction and which arm of the zigzag this fluid would take.” (Christie 2012:604) The channels for liquid seems to be a necessary feature for most of these Inca carved landscapes

Closeup of the Q'enqo stone near Cusco, Peru. Internet image, public domain.

Christie’s analysis relates the carved boulder to rituals and ceremonies. “I think that a similar process of replication took place in Inca rock art: the carved step patterns came to embody agricultural terraces and mountain slopes; cut channels became miniature rivers. In Quechua understanding, the carvings are the camasca, or vitalized manifestations infused by the generative camac of the actual terraces and rivers. The rock art sites - were activated by means of ritual events. Ceremonial performances would have focused on fertility-related offerings and the renewal of the cycle between life and death in which ancestors played an active role.” (Christie 2012:618) In such a case we need to remember the important role ancestors played in Inca culture. The bodies of past emperors were mummified and played a part in rituals.

El Fuerte de Samaipata, Bolivia. Internet image, public domain.

El Fuerte de Samaipata from above, Bolivia. Internet image, public domain.

A site with a very large and impressive carved stone landscape is El Fuerte de Samaipata in the eastern foothills of the Bolivian Andes. “The ceremonial sector is in the northern part of the site. It is about 220 metres (720 ft) by 60 metres (200 ft) and consists mostly of a large rock saddle almost completely covered with carvings of both Inca and pre-Inca origin. The carvings include a variety of geometric and animal figures, walls, niches, and long canal-like carvings called "the spine of the serpent" or "el cascabel" (the rattlesnake). Although not the most visually spectacular, the most important part of the ceremonial sector is the "coro de los sacerdotes" (choir of the priests) at the highest point of the rock. This consists of 18 niches, probably used as seats for individuals, carved into the rock. At the bottom of the rock are 21 carved rectangular niches which may have served as residences for priests or for the storage of ceremonial items. Other niches and alcoves are scattered around the ruin.”  (Wikipedia) Other descriptions of this carved stone include water channels, and representations of planting terraces can be seen in the illustration. With forms such as niches, canals, and pumas and jaguars (Cmielewski et al., 2020:35), this sounds very much like the Sayhuite Stone.

This article will be completed in Part 2.

NOTE: Some images in this column were retrieved from the internet with a search for public domain photographs. If any of these images are not intended to be public domain, I apologize, and will happily provide the picture credits if the owner will contact me with them. For further information on these reports you should read the original reports at the sites listed below. Additionally, some of the quotations I have included have had citations removed from their text. These can also be acquired from the original texts which will be listed in Part 2 of this column.

NORTHWEST COAST ART, AND PICTISH ART REVISITED:

 This is a column that is just for fun. I am not trying to claim any sort of discovery or insight, it is just about a coincidence that I find entrancing.

Line drawing of the 'Pictish Beast.' Internet image, public domain.

On 5 February 2017, I published a column on RockArtBlog titled An Ancient Pictish Water Monster’s Resemblance to the Sea Wolf of Northwest Coast Indian Art. In this column I am going to revisit that subject because the similarity still intrigues me. First, I will state again that I do not see any possibility of contact between the people of ancient Scotland and the tribes of the Northwest Coast of North America. I am not implying any connection between the images, I am just fascinated by their similarities.

'Pictish Beast' carved on the Maiden Stone. Illustration from aberdeenshire.gov.uk.

First, I present the animal symbol known as the ‘Pictish Beast.’ It is found carved in relief on rock slabs known as ‘Pictish Symbol Stones.’

“Pictish symbol stones are of two broad types, long known as Class I and Class II. The symbols on Class I stones are incised, whereas those on the class II stones are carved in relief.” (Cummings 1995:126) These carvings range from a simple line image to wonderfully intricate carved designs with a broad range of content, but the most recognized symbols have been catalogued.

Carved 'Pictish Beast.' Internet image, public domain.

“Some fifty different Pictish symbols have been recognized. These include animal’s heads, birds (eagle, goose), other animals (fish, serpent, boar, bull, dog), and the ‘Pictish Beast’ (often referred to as an elephant, but more probably a stylized dolphin), and a variety of inorganic designs.” (Cummings 1995:126) It would not, of course, be an elephant. Of the dolphins around Scotland the Bottlenose dolphin is common and the shape of its head most closely matches the ‘Pictish Beast.’

Spouting dolphin. Image from Dolphin Watch Cruises.

“The Pictish Beast symbol is characterized by an elongated, sinuous body that typically adopts a horizontal or diagonal orientation, evoking a swimming or serpentine post. Its head features long jaws or a beak-like snout that curls outward at the tip, often accompanied by a lappet indicated by one or two lines. A prominent crest or mane runs along the back in many depictions adding to the creature’s distinctive silhouette. The limbs end in scroll-like or spiraled forms resembling flippers or coiled feet, while the tail is usually drooping and spiral-ended, sometimes reduced to a simple line. The body is frequently infilled with decorative elements such as interlace, fretwork, or spirals, rendered in incised lines of varying depth that contribute to a stylized rather than a naturalistic style.” (Grokipedia vO.2) Assuming that the image can be identified as a Bottlenose Dolphin, what is called the ‘crest’ was probably inspired by the dolphin spouting, the spray of water when it exhales through its blowhole.

The ‘tail’ may be, in fact, the dolphins dorsal fin (or may have been added by the artists because animals have tails), and the ornate coiled legs are the dolphins flippers and flukes.

“On symbol stones, the Beast measures up to 1-2 meters in length, scaled to the slabs dimentions, and appears on both Class I (incised) and Class II (relief) stones.” (Grokipedia vO.2)

Line drawing of Sea Wolves. Nainamo, British Columbia. Internet image, public domain.

Which brings me to Vancouver Island off of the coast of British Columbia in Canada. I have been to petroglyphs sites there that have creatures often identified as Sea Wolves that have a lot in common with the ‘Pictish Beast.’ Generally the resemblances are in the head and the sinuous torso of the animal. Now, let me repeat, I know that they cannot be related in any way, but I love the synchronicity of this. There are images of these from sites on Sproat Lake, Nainamo, and Gabriola Island, five kilometers offshore from Nainamo.

Sea Wolf, Petroglyph Park, Nainamo, Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada. Photograph by Peter Faris, 1997.

Sea Wolf, Sproat Lake, Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada. Photograph by Peter Faris, 1997.

Another wonderful concidence is that the ‘Pictish Beast’ is usually thought to represent a dolphin, and the people who inhabited Vancouver Island, the Kwakwaka’waks, Nuu-chah-nulth, and the Coastal Salish peoples are maritime cultures like the other tribes of the Northwest Coast. Could their Sea Wolf also be a dolphin?

Head of a Sea Wolf, Gabriola Island, off of Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada. Image from Gabriola: Petroglyph Island, by Mary and Ted Bentley, Sono Nis Press, Nelson British Columbia, Canada, 1981, page 26.

I have speculated in the past that the sea wolves might indeed be just that, actual wolves who have adapted to a somewhat maritime lifestyle. But the images identified as sea wolves could equally well be images of dolphins like the ‘Pictish Beast.’

NOTE 1: Some images in this column were retrieved from the internet with a search for public domain photographs. If any of these images are not intended to be public domain, I apologize, and will happily provide the picture credits if the owner will contact me with them. For further information on these reports you should read the original reports at the sites listed below.

NOTE2:  Grok4, cited below as a reference, is a Large Language Model from SpaceXAI.

REFERENCES:

Cummings, W. A., 1995, The Age of the Picts, Alan Sutton Publishing Ltd., Gloucestershire, UK.

Faris, Peter, 2017, An Ancient Pictish Water Monster’s Resemblance to the Sea Wolf of Northwest Coast Indian Art, 5 February 2017, RockArtBlog, https://www.blogger.com/blog/post/edit/7760124847746733855/2882785802379020134

Grok4, Pictish Beast, Grokipedia vO.2. https://grokipedia.com/page/Pictish_Beast.

Owen, Kathryn, 2022, Pictish Beasts, 19 September 2022, https://www.livingfield.co.uk/art/pictish-beasts/. Accessed online 19 September 2026.

EASTERN IBERIAN CAVE USED FOR 24K YEARS:

Cova Dones (Cave of the Women), Spain. Internet image, public domain.

Finding caves occupied and decorated during the Paleolithic is no longer a unique phenomenon, neither is finding traces of Roman occupation in Iberia and Europe. Finding a cave that has both Paleolithic art and traces of Roman occupation is somewhat less common. Add to that, this cave is on the eastern side of the Iberian peninsula, not in the Franco-Cantabrian region where most of the decorated caves in Europe are found and we have something that is almost unique. This is Cova Dones, the Cave of the Women

Horse head painted with red clay, Cova Dones, Spain. Internet photograph, public domain.

The art in Cova Dones was discovered in 2021 and is being studied by a team of academics. (Ruiz-Redondo et al. 2023:1) “So far, we have identified more than 110 graphic units, including at least 19 zoomorphic representations, located in three different zones of the cave. Despite being deep inside the cave (the main decorated area is approximately 400m from the entrance), all zones, and the panels and figures they contain, are easily accessible without any climbing required. The depicted animals are seven horses, seven hinds (female red deer), two aurochs, a stag, and two indeterminate animals. The rest of the art consists of conventional signs (rectangles, meanders), several panels of ‘macaroni’ (‘flutings’ made with either fingers or tools dragged across a soft surface), isolated lines, and poorly preserved unidentified paintings. The variability and rarity of the technical features of the artworks are noteworthy because the assemblage includes different types of engravings and paintings.” (Ruiz-Redondo et al. 2023:2)

Aurochs painted with red clay, Cova Dones, Spain. Internet photograph, public domain.

The cave possesses a wide variety of human made markings and images.  “The variability and rarity of the technical features of the artworks are noteworthy because the assemblage includes different types of engravings and paintings. The engravings comprise the classic single-trait outlines of figures, but also figures shaded by scraping the mondmilch (a type of limestone precipitate) on the surface of the walls. This technique is rare in Paleolithic cave art and previously unknown in eastern Iberia. The painting technique is no less surprising; motifs were created through the application of red clay on the walls, instead of the usual diluted ochre or manganese powder. This iron-rich clay is abundant on the floors of the cave. Examples of such technique are known in the Mediterranean area and beyond (e.g. Ardales, Bernifal, Higuerón, La Pasiega, Pileta, Rouffignac), but they are rare in all of these sites (except at La Baume Latrone). In Cova Dones the entire painted corpus (>80 graphic units) is made using this technique.” (Ruiz-Redondo et al. 2023:2-3) The variety mentioned above may suggest that the images were produced over quite a period of time by many different artists.

Cova Dones, Spain. Internet photograph, public domain.

There are also a number of scratched claw marks of a scale that would match the claws of a cave bear, in one location scratched across some of the finger fluting. “Stylistic analysis of the figures points to a pre-Magdalenian age (>20 ka cal BP) and, considering the date for the extinction of the cave bear, we estimate that at least part of the rock art must be more than 24,000 years old.” (Ruiz-Redondo et al. 2023:4)

Cova Dones, Spain. Internet photograph, public domain.

“While the project is still in its early stages, preliminary results reveal an enormous potential for research at the site and establish this assemblage as arguably the most important for the eastern Iberian coast. Its iconographic and technical features make it one of the few major Pleistocene decorated sites of eastern Iberia.” (Ruiz-Redondo et al. 2023:4) This decorated cave is far from done presenting researchers with surprises.

Roman inscription, Cova Dones, Spain. Image from University of Alicante, San Vicente del Raspeig, Spain.

Along with the Paleolithic cave art this cave holds a large number of inscriptions in Latin carved into the walls. “Archaeologists recorded the inscriptions during a 2026 campaign at Cova de les Dones, near Millares in Valencia. Most date from the first and second centuries CE. The new finds raise the known number of Latin texts at the site from about 15 to at least 129. The inscriptions sit on the walls and ceilings of a chamber more than 200 meters underground. Researchers call the space the Roman Sanctuary. Their location and tight grouping point to a planned place of worship rather than a cave used for occasional religious visits. Five votive inscriptions refer to a goddess addressed as Domina, meaning ‘the Lady.’ Three also contain the word ‘MALACI,’ and unknown title or name linked to the goddess. Researchers are still working on its exact reading and meaning. The title might relate to water, and important feature of the underground setting.” (Radley 2026) Another possibility is that the word MALACI may be a millennia-old ‘Kilroy was here.’

Roman ring, and coin of Hadrian, Cova Dones, Spain. Internet images, public domain.

And, along with the inscriptions in Latin were found a large number of artifacts including many spindle whorls which point to a focus on female activities or concerns. Other finds include rings and a coin featuring the emperor Hadrian. (Radley 2026)

It is always interesting when a discovery opens up a new area or field of inquiry, and Cova Dones has provided more than one.

NOTE: Some images in this column were retrieved from the internet with a search for public domain photographs. If any of these images are not intended to be public domain, I apologize, and will happily provide the picture credits if the owner will contact me with them. For further information on these reports you should read the original reports at the sites listed below.

REFERENCES:

Radley, Dario, 2026, 120 Roman inscriptions reveal a mysterious goddess worshiped in Spain’s Cave of the Women, 21 August 2026, https://archaeologymag.com/2026/08/roman-inscriptions-mysterious-goddess-spain-cave/. Accessed online 22 August 2026.

Ruiz-Redondo, Aitor et al.,2023, Cova Dones: a major Paleolithic cave art site in eastern Iberia, Antiquity, Vol. 97, 396, 1-5. https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2023.133. Accessed online 11 August 2026.

RADIO CARBON DATING THE PAINTINGS OF FONT-DE-GAUME:

Font de Gaume Cave, France. Photograph by Anne Maigret.

Students of rock art and cave painting have long lamented the difficulties of estimating dates. With carbon 14 dating you need an organic component in order to date the image, and if there is no black charcoal in the image the pigment cannot be dated. Some paints have organic binders which can be dated sometimes, but organic binders usually do not last as long as inorganic pigments.

Font de Gaume Cave, France. Photograph by Anne Maigret.

One cave in France with Paleolithic cave art that we have wanted to date is Font-de-gaume. “Font-de-Gaume is one of many caves designated as a UNESCO World Heritage site in the Dordogne region of France. Because of the historical significance of the cave art, touching the walls of Font-de-Gaume is forbidden. The only exception is for collecting a sample to conduct radiocarbon dating, as the analytical technique intrinsically requires some physical material.” (Samuels 2026)

Font de Gaume Cave, France. Photograph by Anne Maigret.

The cave of Font-de-Gaume in France has many paintings, but it has always been assumed that the black pigment was a manganese and/or iron mineral and, as such, could not be dated with radiocarbon dating. “Radiocarbon dating works by measuring carbon-14, a radioactive form of carbon that gradually disappears after an organism dies. Because charcoal is made from burned organic material, it can often be dated using this method. Mineral pigments, however, usually contain no carbon and therefore cannot be analyzed in the same way. Researchers had long believed that many black paintings in the region were made entirely from iron and manganese oxides. These naturally occurring minerals can produce dark pigments, but they do not contain the organic carbon needed for radiocarbon dating.” (CNRS 2026) A recent study, however, disproved this assumption.

A. Visible light photograph of the selected area of cave wall representing a deer, bison and a probable bison (top). B. RGB imaging of the same scene calculated from RIS data.  Photographs by Anne Maigret.

In a recent study it was proven that there is indeed charcoal in some of the black paint in Font-de-Gaume. “To carry out this verification, the scientists examined the chemical composition of two black drawings, depicting a bison and a mask, using Raman microspectrometry and hyperspectral imaging . These noninvasive methods revealed traces of charcoal in the black pigments.” (Landurant  2026)

C and D. Final version after analysis. Red = carbon based pigments, green - manganese oxide pigments. 

Knowing that a portion of the black paint provided a means for Carbon-14 dating, the researchers received permission to remove samples for testing. “Ina Reiche, a research chemist at the French National Center for Scientific Research led the team that removed tiny samples of charcoal for dating. They also added reflectance imaging spectroscopy (RIS) to their repertoire. The method essentially combines imaging and spectroscopy, and might be ‘even better with respect to what we did before,’ Reiche says. The scientists collected four tiny pigment samples one from the bison and three from the mask. The team then used accelerator mass spectrometry to determine the concentration of carbon-14 in each sample and calculated the ages. Three of the four samples date to the Paleolithic era, but the left eye of the mask was markedly younger. Reiche says that it’s clear the left eye contains younger carbon but impossible to know if it came from purposeful retouching, accidental contamination, or more recent graffiti.” (Samuels 2026) This newer date, however, is a sport and not relevant to our purposes.

Hyperspectral image of result provided by reflectance imaging spectroscopy (RIS). Image and colors sharpened with ChatGPT.

After the collection and processing of the samples the results turned out to be truly exciting. “Collecting micro-samples was authorized on an exceptional basis for carbon 14 dating. Although this dating is challenging given the tiny amount of material, analyses confirmed a date in the Upper Paleolithic, slightly more recent than previously estimated: the bison was painted between 13,461 and 13,162 calBP, while different parts of the mask were painted between 8,993 and 8,590 calBP, 15,981 and 15,121 calBP, and between 15,297 and 14,246 calBP.” (Landurant 2026) This procedure opens up possibilities for other locations as well. Being able to identify carbon in black painted images will provide a powerful new tool in cave art analysis.

REFERENCES:

CNRS, 2026, Hidden charcoal reveals the true age of ancient cave paintings, ScienceDaily, 28 July 2026, www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2026/07/260727214619.htm.

Landurant, Manon, 2026, First absolute dating of Paleolithic paintings in the Dordogne, 10 March 2026, phys.org (online). Accessed 10 March 2026.

Samuels, Fionna, 2026, First radiocarbon dating of ancient art in France’s Dordogne caverns, 10 March 2026, https://cen.acs.org. Accessed online 10 March 2026.

DAMAGE TO ROCK ART FROM POWER PLANT POLLUTION EMISSIONS:

Murujuga, on the Burrup Peninsula and Dampier Archipelago in the Pilbara region of Western Australia. Photograph from newsartnet.com.

From 2020 to 2026 a study was conducted at a location known as Murujuga, on the Burrup Peninsula and Dampier Archipelago in the Pilbara region of Western Australia. This fascinating study was an attempt to discern what, if any, damage to rock art was inflicted by the air pollution emitted from power plants and industrial enterprises.

Petroglyph at Murujuga, on the Burrup Peninsula and Dampier Archipelago in the Pilbara region of Western Australia. Photograph from newsartnet.com.

Amy Stevens (2026) has written about the area and the importance of the abundant rock art found there, frequently citing K. A. Evans (2026). “Murujuga is a sacred cultural landscape of land and sea Country across the Burrup Peninsula and Dampier Archipelago, in Western Australia’s Pilbara region. It contains an estimated 1 million to 2 million petroglyphs, or rock engravings, that tell the story of the relationship between Ngarda-Ngarli Traditional Owners and this landscape over at least 50,000 years. These petroglyphs hold deep meaning for Ngarda-Ngarli, embodying cultural, spiritual, ancestral and environmental knowledge.” (Stevens 2026)

Petroglyph at Murujuga, on the Burrup Peninsula and Dampier Archipelago in the Pilbara region of Western Australia. 1970 Photograph from newsartnet.com (red arrows show details).

“In July 2025, the Murujuga Cultural Landscape was added to the UNESCO World Heritage List in recognition of its outstanding cultural and spiritual significance. This brought renewed attention to Murujuga, “commodities such as liquefied natural gas (LNG). Concerns have been raised that industrial pollution is degrading the rock art.” (Stevens 2026) As it is a site in the UNESCO World Heritage List, there is an international recognition of its importance to all people, and degradation of the rock art is then a concert to all people.

Same petroglyph at Murujuga, on the Burrup Peninsula and Dampier Archipelago in the Pilbara region of Western Australia. 1970 Photograph from newsartnet.com showing missing details.

Indeed, this has been a concern for over a decade. A 2017 paper by John Black studied the color changes that the pollution might cause in the patina of the rock art panels, and did conclude that there was destruction beginning to show. “The art is under threat due to high concentration sof acidic and nitrate-rich pollution from nearby industrial complexes. Maintenance of the outer, rock or desert varnish, layer of therocks is essential for preservation of the art. An increase in acidity of rock surfaces through acid rain and organic acids from nitrate-stimulated microbial growth may alter the mineral composition, integrity and color of the rock varnish. This paper describes analyses of distilled water washings from rocks on Burrup Peninsula compared with rocks collected prior to industrialization. Acidity of rock surfaces has increased from near neutral to a pH just above 4. The increasing acidity has been associated with a logarithmic increase in solubilization of manganese (Mn) and iron (Fe) compounds from the rock surfaces. A theoretical evaluation using electrochemical equilibrium principles confirms that increasing acidity will increase the solubilization of Mn and Fe compounds. Removal of darker Mn and Fe mixed M(II)/M(III) compounds from the outer, rock varnish layer and the relative increase in ferrous oxide and illite/kaolin compounds will result in the rock surface layers becoming thinner, lighter, redder and more white/yellow over time. The impact on engraved surfaces would be expected to be greater because the rock varnish is thinner than on the non-engraved surface rock. Pollution from industry on Burrup Peninsula is likely to destroy the rock art over time.” (Black et al 2017) In other words, Black et al found that aerial pollution was degrading the patina on the rock surfaces, especially within the petroglyphs themselves.

Petroglyph at Murujuga, on the Burrup Peninsula and Dampier Archipelago in the Pilbara region of Western Australia. 1974 Photograph from newsartnet.co.

Stevens (2026) reported on the third annual report of this monitoring program. In her article K. A. Evans stated “today we released the third annual peer-reviewed report of the Murujuga Rock Art Monitoring Program (MRAMP). This government-funded research effort doesn’t resolve every question – understanding a system as complex as Murujuga takes time. The research is undertaken by a team of more than 30 multidisciplinary researchers, and independently peer reviewed by a range of international experts. It is solely written by the researchers.” (Stevens 2026)

Same petroglyph at Murujuga, on the Burrup Peninsula and Dampier Archipelago in the Pilbara region of Western Australia. 2021 Photograph from newsartnet.com (red arrows show damage to the stone).

Stevens (2026) quoted from Evans report that “Earlier monitoring pointed to nitrogen dioxide, the most abundant air pollutant gas at Murujuga, as a possible cause. But our data at the time couldn’t clearly separate its effects from other air-borne pollutants, particularly sulfur dioxide.” (Stevens 2026)

Petroglyph at Murujuga, on the Burrup Peninsula and Dampier Archipelago in the Pilbara region of Western Australia. 1988 Photograph from newsartnet.co.

Evans (2026) stated “This year’s results change that and the acid rain it can produce, as the most relevant factor. The chemistry behind this is well understood: sulfur dioxide reacts in the atmosphere or on the rock surface to form sulfuric acid. This can dissolve the manganese and iron oxide minerals that give the rock varnish its dark color, to create porosity. Several lines of evidence – atmospheric chemistry, rainfall pH and laboratory testing – now point to historic levels of sulphur dioxide from a range of industry and shipping.” (Evans 2026) Known as acid rain this will degrade the patina as well as the rock surface.

Same petroglyph at Murujuga, on the Burrup Peninsula and Dampier Archipelago in the Pilbara region of Western Australia. 2021 Photograph from newsartnet.co.

“Rock, rainfall, and dry deposition pH values argue against present-day acidification of rock surfaces and historically high rates of patina dissolution. However, the elevated porosity values proximal to heavy industry require explanation. Any such explanation must be placed in the context of this ancient landscape. The rocks of Murujuga weathered sub-aerially for thousands to tens of thousands or even hundreds of thousands of years, prior to the introduction of heavy industry from the 1960s onwards. As heavy industry evolved, the fluxes and composition of emitted gases changed. This extended history complicates attribution of the elevated porosity to any specific time or emissions source. Porosity would have formed naturally over the weathering history of the rock. However, elevated porosity within the weathered rind is observed proximal to Dampier, within a region spatially coincident with current elevated concentrations of NO². This association suggests a link between emissions and the elevated porosity. Both NOx, which include NO², and SOx which include SO², are considered reactive gases, which means that they react in the atmosphere to form nitric and sulfuric acids, which can increase the rate of rock weathering.” (Evans 2026)

Petroglyph at Murujuga, on the Burrup Peninsula and Dampier Archipelago in the Pilbara region of Western Australia.  Photograph from newsartnet.com.

“Damage to landscapes such as Murujuga rarely have a single cause. We’re tracking how many factors interact, sometimes over decades. The fourth and final year of this research will focus on the interplay of air quality, rock surfaces and microbial communities. We will also complete the environmental criteria to protect Murujuga in the long term, with a focus on ammonia and ozone, in addition to sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide. However, ongoing monitoring will continue to ensure the protection of the rock art.” (Stevens 2026) This damage has accumulated over time, and perhaps will hopefully be prevented in the future. This is, however, not the only site by any means where rock art has been damaged by industrial pollution. Indeed, using the findings of both the 2017 study (Black et al.) and the 2026 study (Evans et al.) these processes are constantly at work at many rock art sites, if not all.

Hayden coal generating station, Hayden, Colorado. Photograph by cpr.com.

One site that I know well, here in Colorado, is not far from the Hayden Power Plant in Hayden, Colorado. This is a 465 megawatt coal generating station operated by Xcel Energy Company. This is quite near the Hayden pictograph site which is found along Highway 40. As the photographs show, the rock face here is extremely degraded.

Pictograph panel near Hayden power station showing degraded condition. Photograph Peter Faris, 1982.

Equestrian figure from the left side of the pictograph panel near Hayden power station showing degraded condition. Photograph Peter Faris, 1982.

This damage is not just from the shotgun pellets scattered all over the equestrian on the left (seen as faint white spots). The coal plant emissions cannot be doing this rock art panel any good. Wouldn’t it be a lovely surprise to find something happening to rock art that is good for its preservations?

REFERENCE:

Black, John L. et al., 2017, Theoretical effects of industrial emissions on color change at rock art sites on the Burrup Peninsula, Western Australia, Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 12, 457-462. Accessed online on 29 August 2026.

Evans, K. A. et al., 2026, Impacts of industrial emissions on rock art at Murujuga, Western Australia, Scientific Reports (2026) 16:13805. Accessed online on 29 August 2026.

Stevens, Amy, 2026, Historic sulfur emissions the likely cause of damage to Murujuga rock art: new research, 25 August 2026, https://theconversation.com. Accessed online on 26 August 2026.