EASTERN IBERIAN CAVE USED FOR 24K YEARS:

Cova Dones (Cave of the Women), Spain. Internet image, public domain.

Finding caves occupied and decorated during the Paleolithic is no longer a unique phenomenon, neither is finding traces of Roman occupation in Iberia and Europe. Finding a cave that has both Paleolithic art and traces of Roman occupation is somewhat less common. Add to that, this cave is on the eastern side of the Iberian peninsula, not in the Franco-Cantabrian region where most of the decorated caves in Europe are found and we have something that is almost unique. This is Cova Dones, the Cave of the Women

Horse head painted with red clay, Cova Dones, Spain. Internet photograph, public domain.

The art in Cova Dones was discovered in 2021 and is being studied by a team of academics. (Ruiz-Redondo et al. 2023:1) “So far, we have identified more than 110 graphic units, including at least 19 zoomorphic representations, located in three different zones of the cave. Despite being deep inside the cave (the main decorated area is approximately 400m from the entrance), all zones, and the panels and figures they contain, are easily accessible without any climbing required. The depicted animals are seven horses, seven hinds (female red deer), two aurochs, a stag, and two indeterminate animals. The rest of the art consists of conventional signs (rectangles, meanders), several panels of ‘macaroni’ (‘flutings’ made with either fingers or tools dragged across a soft surface), isolated lines, and poorly preserved unidentified paintings. The variability and rarity of the technical features of the artworks are noteworthy because the assemblage includes different types of engravings and paintings.” (Ruiz-Redondo et al. 2023:2)

Aurochs painted with red clay, Cova Dones, Spain. Internet photograph, public domain.

The cave possesses a wide variety of human made markings and images.  “The variability and rarity of the technical features of the artworks are noteworthy because the assemblage includes different types of engravings and paintings. The engravings comprise the classic single-trait outlines of figures, but also figures shaded by scraping the mondmilch (a type of limestone precipitate) on the surface of the walls. This technique is rare in Paleolithic cave art and previously unknown in eastern Iberia. The painting technique is no less surprising; motifs were created through the application of red clay on the walls, instead of the usual diluted ochre or manganese powder. This iron-rich clay is abundant on the floors of the cave. Examples of such technique are known in the Mediterranean area and beyond (e.g. Ardales, Bernifal, Higuerón, La Pasiega, Pileta, Rouffignac), but they are rare in all of these sites (except at La Baume Latrone). In Cova Dones the entire painted corpus (>80 graphic units) is made using this technique.” (Ruiz-Redondo et al. 2023:2-3) The variety mentioned above may suggest that the images were produced over quite a period of time by many different artists.

Cova Dones, Spain. Internet photograph, public domain.

There are also a number of scratched claw marks of a scale that would match the claws of a cave bear, in one location scratched across some of the finger fluting. “Stylistic analysis of the figures points to a pre-Magdalenian age (>20 ka cal BP) and, considering the date for the extinction of the cave bear, we estimate that at least part of the rock art must be more than 24,000 years old.” (Ruiz-Redondo et al. 2023:4)

Cova Dones, Spain. Internet photograph, public domain.

“While the project is still in its early stages, preliminary results reveal an enormous potential for research at the site and establish this assemblage as arguably the most important for the eastern Iberian coast. Its iconographic and technical features make it one of the few major Pleistocene decorated sites of eastern Iberia.” (Ruiz-Redondo et al. 2023:4) This decorated cave is far from done presenting researchers with surprises.

Roman inscription, Cova Dones, Spain. Image from University of Alicante, San Vicente del Raspeig, Spain.

Along with the Paleolithic cave art this cave holds a large number of inscriptions in Latin carved into the walls. “Archaeologists recorded the inscriptions during a 2026 campaign at Cova de les Dones, near Millares in Valencia. Most date from the first and second centuries CE. The new finds raise the known number of Latin texts at the site from about 15 to at least 129. The inscriptions sit on the walls and ceilings of a chamber more than 200 meters underground. Researchers call the space the Roman Sanctuary. Their location and tight grouping point to a planned place of worship rather than a cave used for occasional religious visits. Five votive inscriptions refer to a goddess addressed as Domina, meaning ‘the Lady.’ Three also contain the word ‘MALACI,’ and unknown title or name linked to the goddess. Researchers are still working on its exact reading and meaning. The title might relate to water, and important feature of the underground setting.” (Radley 2026) Another possibility is that the word MALACI may be a millennia-old ‘Kilroy was here.’

Roman ring, and coin of Hadrian, Cova Dones, Spain. Internet images, public domain.

And, along with the inscriptions in Latin were found a large number of artifacts including many spindle whorls which point to a focus on female activities or concerns. Other finds include rings and a coin featuring the emperor Hadrian. (Radley 2026)

It is always interesting when a discovery opens up a new area or field of inquiry, and Cova Dones has provided more than one.

NOTE: Some images in this column were retrieved from the internet with a search for public domain photographs. If any of these images are not intended to be public domain, I apologize, and will happily provide the picture credits if the owner will contact me with them. For further information on these reports you should read the original reports at the sites listed below.

REFERENCES:

Radley, Dario, 2026, 120 Roman inscriptions reveal a mysterious goddess worshiped in Spain’s Cave of the Women, 21 August 2026, https://archaeologymag.com/2026/08/roman-inscriptions-mysterious-goddess-spain-cave/. Accessed online 22 August 2026.

Ruiz-Redondo, Aitor et al.,2023, Cova Dones: a major Paleolithic cave art site in eastern Iberia, Antiquity, Vol. 97, 396, 1-5. https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2023.133. Accessed online 11 August 2026.

RADIO CARBON DATING THE PAINTINGS OF FONT-DE-GAUME:

Font de Gaume Cave, France. Photograph by Anne Maigret.

Students of rock art and cave painting have long lamented the difficulties of estimating dates. With carbon 14 dating you need an organic component in order to date the image, and if there is no black charcoal in the image the pigment cannot be dated. Some paints have organic binders which can be dated sometimes, but organic binders usually do not last as long as inorganic pigments.

Font de Gaume Cave, France. Photograph by Anne Maigret.

One cave in France with Paleolithic cave art that we have wanted to date is Font-de-gaume. “Font-de-Gaume is one of many caves designated as a UNESCO World Heritage site in the Dordogne region of France. Because of the historical significance of the cave art, touching the walls of Font-de-Gaume is forbidden. The only exception is for collecting a sample to conduct radiocarbon dating, as the analytical technique intrinsically requires some physical material.” (Samuels 2026)

Font de Gaume Cave, France. Photograph by Anne Maigret.

The cave of Font-de-Gaume in France has many paintings, but it has always been assumed that the black pigment was a manganese and/or iron mineral and, as such, could not be dated with radiocarbon dating. “Radiocarbon dating works by measuring carbon-14, a radioactive form of carbon that gradually disappears after an organism dies. Because charcoal is made from burned organic material, it can often be dated using this method. Mineral pigments, however, usually contain no carbon and therefore cannot be analyzed in the same way. Researchers had long believed that many black paintings in the region were made entirely from iron and manganese oxides. These naturally occurring minerals can produce dark pigments, but they do not contain the organic carbon needed for radiocarbon dating.” (CNRS 2026) A recent study, however, disproved this assumption.

A. Visible light photograph of the selected area of cave wall representing a deer, bison and a probable bison (top). B. RGB imaging of the same scene calculated from RIS data.  Photographs by Anne Maigret.

In a recent study it was proven that there is indeed charcoal in some of the black paint in Font-de-Gaume. “To carry out this verification, the scientists examined the chemical composition of two black drawings, depicting a bison and a mask, using Raman microspectrometry and hyperspectral imaging . These noninvasive methods revealed traces of charcoal in the black pigments.” (Landurant  2026)

C and D. Final version after analysis. Red = carbon based pigments, green - manganese oxide pigments. 

Knowing that a portion of the black paint provided a means for Carbon-14 dating, the researchers received permission to remove samples for testing. “Ina Reiche, a research chemist at the French National Center for Scientific Research led the team that removed tiny samples of charcoal for dating. They also added reflectance imaging spectroscopy (RIS) to their repertoire. The method essentially combines imaging and spectroscopy, and might be ‘even better with respect to what we did before,’ Reiche says. The scientists collected four tiny pigment samples one from the bison and three from the mask. The team then used accelerator mass spectrometry to determine the concentration of carbon-14 in each sample and calculated the ages. Three of the four samples date to the Paleolithic era, but the left eye of the mask was markedly younger. Reiche says that it’s clear the left eye contains younger carbon but impossible to know if it came from purposeful retouching, accidental contamination, or more recent graffiti.” (Samuels 2026) This newer date, however, is a sport and not relevant to our purposes.

Hyperspectral image of result provided by reflectance imaging spectroscopy (RIS). Image and colors sharpened with ChatGPT.

After the collection and processing of the samples the results turned out to be truly exciting. “Collecting micro-samples was authorized on an exceptional basis for carbon 14 dating. Although this dating is challenging given the tiny amount of material, analyses confirmed a date in the Upper Paleolithic, slightly more recent than previously estimated: the bison was painted between 13,461 and 13,162 calBP, while different parts of the mask were painted between 8,993 and 8,590 calBP, 15,981 and 15,121 calBP, and between 15,297 and 14,246 calBP.” (Landurant 2026) This procedure opens up possibilities for other locations as well. Being able to identify carbon in black painted images will provide a powerful new tool in cave art analysis.

REFERENCES:

CNRS, 2026, Hidden charcoal reveals the true age of ancient cave paintings, ScienceDaily, 28 July 2026, www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2026/07/260727214619.htm.

Landurant, Manon, 2026, First absolute dating of Paleolithic paintings in the Dordogne, 10 March 2026, phys.org (online). Accessed 10 March 2026.

Samuels, Fionna, 2026, First radiocarbon dating of ancient art in France’s Dordogne caverns, 10 March 2026, https://cen.acs.org. Accessed online 10 March 2026.

DAMAGE TO ROCK ART FROM POWER PLANT POLLUTION EMISSIONS:

Murujuga, on the Burrup Peninsula and Dampier Archipelago in the Pilbara region of Western Australia. Photograph from newsartnet.com.

From 2020 to 2026 a study was conducted at a location known as Murujuga, on the Burrup Peninsula and Dampier Archipelago in the Pilbara region of Western Australia. This fascinating study was an attempt to discern what, if any, damage to rock art was inflicted by the air pollution emitted from power plants and industrial enterprises.

Petroglyph at Murujuga, on the Burrup Peninsula and Dampier Archipelago in the Pilbara region of Western Australia. Photograph from newsartnet.com.

Amy Stevens (2026) has written about the area and the importance of the abundant rock art found there, frequently citing K. A. Evans (2026). “Murujuga is a sacred cultural landscape of land and sea Country across the Burrup Peninsula and Dampier Archipelago, in Western Australia’s Pilbara region. It contains an estimated 1 million to 2 million petroglyphs, or rock engravings, that tell the story of the relationship between Ngarda-Ngarli Traditional Owners and this landscape over at least 50,000 years. These petroglyphs hold deep meaning for Ngarda-Ngarli, embodying cultural, spiritual, ancestral and environmental knowledge.” (Stevens 2026)

Petroglyph at Murujuga, on the Burrup Peninsula and Dampier Archipelago in the Pilbara region of Western Australia. 1970 Photograph from newsartnet.com (red arrows show details).

“In July 2025, the Murujuga Cultural Landscape was added to the UNESCO World Heritage List in recognition of its outstanding cultural and spiritual significance. This brought renewed attention to Murujuga, “commodities such as liquefied natural gas (LNG). Concerns have been raised that industrial pollution is degrading the rock art.” (Stevens 2026) As it is a site in the UNESCO World Heritage List, there is an international recognition of its importance to all people, and degradation of the rock art is then a concert to all people.

Same petroglyph at Murujuga, on the Burrup Peninsula and Dampier Archipelago in the Pilbara region of Western Australia. 1970 Photograph from newsartnet.com showing missing details.

Indeed, this has been a concern for over a decade. A 2017 paper by John Black studied the color changes that the pollution might cause in the patina of the rock art panels, and did conclude that there was destruction beginning to show. “The art is under threat due to high concentration sof acidic and nitrate-rich pollution from nearby industrial complexes. Maintenance of the outer, rock or desert varnish, layer of therocks is essential for preservation of the art. An increase in acidity of rock surfaces through acid rain and organic acids from nitrate-stimulated microbial growth may alter the mineral composition, integrity and color of the rock varnish. This paper describes analyses of distilled water washings from rocks on Burrup Peninsula compared with rocks collected prior to industrialization. Acidity of rock surfaces has increased from near neutral to a pH just above 4. The increasing acidity has been associated with a logarithmic increase in solubilization of manganese (Mn) and iron (Fe) compounds from the rock surfaces. A theoretical evaluation using electrochemical equilibrium principles confirms that increasing acidity will increase the solubilization of Mn and Fe compounds. Removal of darker Mn and Fe mixed M(II)/M(III) compounds from the outer, rock varnish layer and the relative increase in ferrous oxide and illite/kaolin compounds will result in the rock surface layers becoming thinner, lighter, redder and more white/yellow over time. The impact on engraved surfaces would be expected to be greater because the rock varnish is thinner than on the non-engraved surface rock. Pollution from industry on Burrup Peninsula is likely to destroy the rock art over time.” (Black et al 2017) In other words, Black et al found that aerial pollution was degrading the patina on the rock surfaces, especially within the petroglyphs themselves.

Petroglyph at Murujuga, on the Burrup Peninsula and Dampier Archipelago in the Pilbara region of Western Australia. 1974 Photograph from newsartnet.co.

Stevens (2026) reported on the third annual report of this monitoring program. In her article K. A. Evans stated “today we released the third annual peer-reviewed report of the Murujuga Rock Art Monitoring Program (MRAMP). This government-funded research effort doesn’t resolve every question – understanding a system as complex as Murujuga takes time. The research is undertaken by a team of more than 30 multidisciplinary researchers, and independently peer reviewed by a range of international experts. It is solely written by the researchers.” (Stevens 2026)

Same petroglyph at Murujuga, on the Burrup Peninsula and Dampier Archipelago in the Pilbara region of Western Australia. 2021 Photograph from newsartnet.com (red arrows show damage to the stone).

Stevens (2026) quoted from Evans report that “Earlier monitoring pointed to nitrogen dioxide, the most abundant air pollutant gas at Murujuga, as a possible cause. But our data at the time couldn’t clearly separate its effects from other air-borne pollutants, particularly sulfur dioxide.” (Stevens 2026)

Petroglyph at Murujuga, on the Burrup Peninsula and Dampier Archipelago in the Pilbara region of Western Australia. 1988 Photograph from newsartnet.co.

Evans (2026) stated “This year’s results change that and the acid rain it can produce, as the most relevant factor. The chemistry behind this is well understood: sulfur dioxide reacts in the atmosphere or on the rock surface to form sulfuric acid. This can dissolve the manganese and iron oxide minerals that give the rock varnish its dark color, to create porosity. Several lines of evidence – atmospheric chemistry, rainfall pH and laboratory testing – now point to historic levels of sulphur dioxide from a range of industry and shipping.” (Evans 2026) Known as acid rain this will degrade the patina as well as the rock surface.

Same petroglyph at Murujuga, on the Burrup Peninsula and Dampier Archipelago in the Pilbara region of Western Australia. 2021 Photograph from newsartnet.co.

“Rock, rainfall, and dry deposition pH values argue against present-day acidification of rock surfaces and historically high rates of patina dissolution. However, the elevated porosity values proximal to heavy industry require explanation. Any such explanation must be placed in the context of this ancient landscape. The rocks of Murujuga weathered sub-aerially for thousands to tens of thousands or even hundreds of thousands of years, prior to the introduction of heavy industry from the 1960s onwards. As heavy industry evolved, the fluxes and composition of emitted gases changed. This extended history complicates attribution of the elevated porosity to any specific time or emissions source. Porosity would have formed naturally over the weathering history of the rock. However, elevated porosity within the weathered rind is observed proximal to Dampier, within a region spatially coincident with current elevated concentrations of NO². This association suggests a link between emissions and the elevated porosity. Both NOx, which include NO², and SOx which include SO², are considered reactive gases, which means that they react in the atmosphere to form nitric and sulfuric acids, which can increase the rate of rock weathering.” (Evans 2026)

Petroglyph at Murujuga, on the Burrup Peninsula and Dampier Archipelago in the Pilbara region of Western Australia.  Photograph from newsartnet.com.

“Damage to landscapes such as Murujuga rarely have a single cause. We’re tracking how many factors interact, sometimes over decades. The fourth and final year of this research will focus on the interplay of air quality, rock surfaces and microbial communities. We will also complete the environmental criteria to protect Murujuga in the long term, with a focus on ammonia and ozone, in addition to sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide. However, ongoing monitoring will continue to ensure the protection of the rock art.” (Stevens 2026) This damage has accumulated over time, and perhaps will hopefully be prevented in the future. This is, however, not the only site by any means where rock art has been damaged by industrial pollution. Indeed, using the findings of both the 2017 study (Black et al.) and the 2026 study (Evans et al.) these processes are constantly at work at many rock art sites, if not all.

Hayden coal generating station, Hayden, Colorado. Photograph by cpr.com.

One site that I know well, here in Colorado, is not far from the Hayden Power Plant in Hayden, Colorado. This is a 465 megawatt coal generating station operated by Xcel Energy Company. This is quite near the Hayden pictograph site which is found along Highway 40. As the photographs show, the rock face here is extremely degraded.

Pictograph panel near Hayden power station showing degraded condition. Photograph Peter Faris, 1982.

Equestrian figure from the left side of the pictograph panel near Hayden power station showing degraded condition. Photograph Peter Faris, 1982.

This damage is not just from the shotgun pellets scattered all over the equestrian on the left (seen as faint white spots). The coal plant emissions cannot be doing this rock art panel any good. Wouldn’t it be a lovely surprise to find something happening to rock art that is good for its preservations?

REFERENCE:

Black, John L. et al., 2017, Theoretical effects of industrial emissions on color change at rock art sites on the Burrup Peninsula, Western Australia, Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 12, 457-462. Accessed online on 29 August 2026.

Evans, K. A. et al., 2026, Impacts of industrial emissions on rock art at Murujuga, Western Australia, Scientific Reports (2026) 16:13805. Accessed online on 29 August 2026.

Stevens, Amy, 2026, Historic sulfur emissions the likely cause of damage to Murujuga rock art: new research, 25 August 2026, https://theconversation.com. Accessed online on 26 August 2026.