THE MILKY WAY IN ROCK ART:

 

The Milky Way. Vera Rubin Observatory photograph.

It is almost universally accepted that ancient cultures were very interested in the heavens, and we can assume that the prehistoric creators of petroglyphs and pictographs were also fascinated by questions of the universe. It could not have been possible to not be fascinated by the Milky Way.

Nut, Egyptian sky goddess. Internet image, public domain.

Among the most prominent features of the night sky is the side view of our galaxy that we call the Milky Way. Ancient cultures had to have an explanation for it that satisfied their world view and mythology. “The Egyptians, for examples, may not have been the only culture to link the Milky Way to a sky goddess who gives birth to other gods and, especially, other celestial objects.” (Graur 2024:37)

Citlalicue, sky-goddess. Internet image, public domain.

Peoples of the Americas had their own beliefs concerning the Milky Way. “Several of the pages in the Codex Borgia, a pre-Colombian pictorial manuscript composed by the Tlaxa-caltec people of the Puebla-Tlaxcala Valley in Mexico, include images of elongated beings covered with stars. These beings have been identified as the Milky Way as well as the goddess Citlalicue (Star Skirt), the “… goddess of the stars …”, and the mother of several gods, including the Venus god Quetzalcoatl. Quetzalcoatl is shown cutting his way out of the belly of Citlalicue; this and other, similar scenes in Co-dex Borgia 29-46 are interpreted as Venus crossing the Milky Way.” (Graur 2024:37)

Similar views of the Milky Way are found across Mesoamerica (Milbrath, 1999: 41). The dead of the Yucatec Maya travel along the Milky Way at night (Sosa, 1985: 432). The Quiché Maya see the Galaxy as two of four cosmic roads. Of these, the Black Road (Q’eqa b’e) or Road of Xibalba (Ri b’e xib’alb’a), which is identified with the dark band of the Milky Way’s Great Rift, leads to the underworld (Tedlock, 1985: 36, 337, 354). Similarly, the Lacandón call the Milky Way the “… white way of our true lord …”, Hachäkyum, the ruler of heaven populated by the dead.” (Graur 2024:39)

Mayan two-headed sky monster, from Clopan, altar 4,  Late Classic Period. Image from Mary Miller and Karl Taube,The Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya, Thames and Hudson, London, 1993.

The ancient Maya saw the Milky Way as a serpentine monster with a head at each end. “Specifically, the two-headed monster known as the Celestial Monster or Cosmic Monster. This particular supernatural creature usually has either a crocodilian or sky band body, but in at least one example, cloud scrolls form the body. - - Most commonly, the Bicephalic Monster frames scenes of accession or rulership for the Maya, but its intrinsic meaning may be to represent the arc of the heavens, the front head being identified with Venus, pulling behind it the fleshless head of the Sun in the Underworld .” (Miller and Taube 1993:45) This is considerably more picturesque than many other beliefs, but then the Maya did have amazing imaginations and left us many images of them.

First Nations people in North America had a range of beliefs concerning the Milky Way. “Many Native American peoples across North America view the Milky Way as a road along which the spirits of the dead travel to the afterlife. The souls (tasoom) of the Cheyenne are said to travel toward the home of Hemmawihio (The Wise One Above), an all-knowing high god re-presented by the Sun, via the Milky Way, which is known as ekutsihimmiyo (Adamson Hoebel, 1960: 86–87). The Lakota name for the Milky Way is Wanáǧi Thacháŋku, the Spirits’ Road, which the Lakota follow to heaven when they die (Hollabaugh, 2017: 70–72). The Pawnee come to this life as the children of stars and, when they die, become stars once more. The stars of the Milky Way are the ancestors of the Pawnee moving from this world to the next (Pawnee Nation Tribal Historic Preservation Office, pers. comm., 2022)..” (Graur 2024:39) The idea that the Milky Way is a road or a path is a very common belief all around the world.

Chaco Canyon petroglyph panel. Photograph by Suzan Bradford.

Suzan Bradford's photograph overlaid against the Milky Way. Image by Robert Juhl.

Back in 2014 Robert A. Juhl sent me a PowerPoint presentation that he had created based upon a rock art photograph from Chaco Canyon that had been taken by Susan Bradford. In this presentation he likened the petroglyphs panel in the photograph to details of the Milky Way in the region of Scorpius in the night sky. When he superimposed the petroglyphs panel over this section of the Milky Way a crack across the panel seems to conform with the ‘Great Rift’ in the Milky Way, and he could match up a number of other details in the panel and the Milky Way. Additionally, although Juhl does not make this claim in his PowerPoint, the other features on the panel could represent constellations in that section of sky.

In the area of the American southwest tribes, the Milky Way is known as Ashes placed across the sky, or the Great Snowdrift in the sky by the Zuni people. (Miller 1997:183) In the design for a Navajo sand painting in the Shooting Chant Father Sky on the left side shows the Milky Way across his chest as a row of connected diamonds. (Miller 1997:187) But, most tribes in North and Central America connect the Milky Way with a path arcing across the night sky.

 

Rochester Creek petroglyph panel. Photograph Peter Faris, August 1993. Reminiscent of Nut arched across the sky, with a push me-pull you in the upper left corner to represent the Mayan two-headed monster?

With that definition in mind I will present as a possible representation of the Milky Way the great panel at Rochester Creek, near the junction with Muddy Creek near Emery, Utah. The arc in the panel might be seen as representing the Milky Way, and the creatures scattered around it might represent the constellations as identified by the people. As I said above, this is only a possibility, the arc in the panel is often presented as a rainbow as well, but the Milky Way and surrounding constellations might be a better explanation of the other figures on the panel. In any case, it is an interesting question and kind of fun to speculate on.

NOTE: Some images in this posting were retrieved from the internet with a search for public domain photographs. If any of these images are not intended to be public domain, I apologize, and will happily provide the picture credits if the owner will contact me with them. For further information on these reports you should read the original reports at the sites listed below.

REFERENCES:

Graur, Or, 2024, The Ancient Egyptian Personification of the Milky Way as the Sky-Goddess Nut: An Astronomical and Cross-Cultural Analysis, Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage, 27(1), 28-45.

Juhl, Robert A., 2013, The Milky Way in Chaco Rock Art, Version 18. PowerPoint presentation.

Miller, Dorcas S., 1997, Stars of the First People, Pruett Publishing Co., Boulder, Colorado.

Miller, Mary, and Karl Taube, 1993, The Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya, Thames and Hudson, London.

SECONDARY REFERENCES:

Adamson Hoebel, E., 1960. The Cheyennes: Indians of the Great Plains. New York, Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Milbrath, S., 1988. Birth images in Mixteca-Puebla art. In Miller, V.E. (ed.), The Role of Gender in Pre-Colombian Art and Architecture. Lanham, University Press of America. Pp. 153–178.

Milbrath, S., 1999. Star Gods of the Maya: Astronomy in Art, Folklore, and Calendars. Austin, University of Texas Press.

 

Tedlock, D., 1985. Popol Vuh: The Mayan Book of the Dawn of Life, Revised Edition. New York, Simon & Schuster.

COULD THE CAVE ARTISTS ACTUALLY SEE THEIR COLORS – EVEN BLUE?

 

On July 12 and 19 of this year (2025) I published a two part look at color perception among ancient peoples titled Could the Cave Artists Actually See Their Colors – parts 1 and 2. These explored theories that ancient people perceived fewer colors than we do today. While I do not agree with any of those positions I did have fun exploring the topic. Now I have found a paper that helps cast light on that question and may help provide an answer. 

Isatis tinctoria L. Internet image, public domain.

The discovery was made in Dzudzuana Cave, in Georgia, in the Caucasus. “In the foothills of the Caucasus, archaeologists have recovered something unusual from Dzudzuana Cave: tiny traces of indigotin, the molecule that produces indigo blue. The residues clung to pebbles used as grinding tools 34,000 years ago. They came not from food, but from the leaves of Isatis tinctoria L. – a plant better known as woad.” (anthropology.net 2025)

Isatis tinctoria. Photograph botanic.cam.ac.uk.

The evidence was found in grinding stones. “The leaf epidermis fragments were found entrapped in the topography of the used surface of unmodified pebbles, in association with use-wear traces. Although their bitter taste renders them essentially inedible, the leaves have well-recognised medicinal properties and contain indigotin precursors, the chromophore responsible for the blue colour of woad, a plant-based dye that is insoluble in water.” (Longo et al. 2025:1) Indeed, it is woad that is traditionally used in dying the denim for blue jeans.

“This is the first evidence that Upper Paleolithic groups intentionally processed a non-nutritional plant to extract compounds for purposes beyond survival. For archaeologists, it is a rare window into how Homo sapiens looked to plants not just for calories, but for color, healing, and meaning.” (anthropology.net 2025) So now the question is whether the I. tinctoria was ground for medicinal uses, or to obtain the blue colorant, or both.

“The ingestion of non-nutritional plants containing medicinal secondary metabolites was identified in 47,000-year-old Nean­derthal dental calculus, while tentative evidence for poison 40,000 years ago was recovered from Border Cave, South Africa. Medicinal plants are reported from a number of Palaeolithic sites in the Caucasus; however, it is challenging to demonstrate that these were ingested and/or intentionally processed. To date, there is no evidence for the extraction of dyes from organic materials in the Palaeolithic; the known colourants (red, yellow, black and white) are all pigments of mineral origin apart from charcoal. They are highly resistant to ageing, with little apparent degradation and known to have been used in Palaeolithic art and for other purposes. For example, ochre is known in various applications such as tanning leather or skin, as a preservative, as insect deterrent and as skin protection.” (Longo et al. 2025:2-3)

Grinding stones with traces of Isatis tinctoria L. leaves. Photograph from PlosOne.

Also “this is the first time indigotin — a blue secondary compound, also known as indigo — has been identified on such ancient artifacts. The molecule forms through a reaction between atmospheric oxygen and the natural glycoside precursors in Isatis tinctoria L. leaves, released from the cellular vacuoles. This proves that the plant, despite not being edible, was intentionally processed as early as 34,000 years ago.” (Ca’ Foscari University of Venice (Press Release), 2025)

 

“Although a significant number of plants naturally contain useful secondary metabolites, many require complex processing to access these and make them usable. Even in the case of food, some nutritious plants require extensive leaching, roasting and/or pounding to eliminate toxins, while extraction of useful medicinal secondary compounds demands a deep knowledge of plants since many can be both medicinal and poisonous, with only the correct processing and dosage making the difference. The processing of plants cannot be simply assumed or ignored as it formed part of the complex tapestry of Paleolithic life. Nonetheless, to demonstrate the use of plants, exhaustive analytical studies are required and studies such as those pre­sented here, is one way to achieve this.” (Longo et al. 2025:15-16) I think common sense allows us to infer a considerable range and variety of plant use during the Paleolithic.

Microscopic trace of indigotin. Image from PlosOne.

“Many plants have extensive medicinal properties including anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, antimicrobial, antiviral, anal­gesic, and antioxidant and there is extensive evidence for the use of these, not only in human traditional medicine, but also across the animal kingdom. All animals, and even insects, self-medicate. In the case of chimpanzees, they sometimes prepare the plants prior to consumption; Sumatran orangutans are known to apply to wounds a mashed concoction of Fibraurea tinctoria leaves. Today, the roots of I. tinctoria and other indigo-bearing plants are used in medicine because they contain flavonoids and the leaves contain indigoid-precursor molecules that have preserva­tive, antiseptic, repellent, and protective properties. It is therefore entirely within the behavioral context of humans, from all Paleolithic periods, to use plants to self-medicate.”  (Longo et al. 2025:17)

Indigotin ground from Isatis tinctoria. Photograph from archaeology.org.

“I. tinctoria is also known as a source of indigotin, a well-established blue chromophore obtained by the oxidation of precursors naturally present in the cells of the leaves. The use of I. tinctoria to obtain a blue hue is well known, and this knowledge extends into later prehistory. The use of this plant has been recorded as dye since Egyptian times, the earliest written source being the Papyrus Graecus Holmensis (also known as the Stockholm papyrus, retrieved in the XIX century). However, while the possibility exists that I. tinctoria was transformed into woad dye and used during the Early Upper Palaeolithic, there is currently no archaeological evidence for this. However, and more broadly, color was  known, in particular in rock art where red, yellow, white and black are present across the Eurasian continent and the Indonesian archipelago from around 40,000 years ago. Blue is a relatively rare color in nature and to the best of our knowl­edge, blue pigment (mineral-based) from Palaeolithic contexts has only been reported for Siberian figurines.” (Longo et al. 2025:17-18) Organic based paints (i.e. plant-derived) tend to disappear through oxidation and weathering over the millennia. I. tinctoria may have been used as a colorant for rock art but we may never know it.

Given that no known evidence remains of the use of I. tinctoria as a colorant from this long ago so it may well be that the intended use was medicinal, however, the fact that the people there were engaged in grinding it in preparation for something would seem to be proof that they could see it. So, the question of whether ancient painters could see blue or not 34,000 years ago is closed – as I said before, they could.

NOTE: Some images in this posting were retrieved from the internet with a search for public domain photographs. If any of these images are not intended to be public domain, I apologize, and will happily provide the picture credits if the owner will contact me with them. For further information on these reports you should read the originals at the sites listed below.

REFERENCES:

Anthropology.net, 2025, The Blue Shadows of Dzudzuana, 2 September 2025, https://anthropology.net. Accessed online 3 September 2025.

Ca' Foscari University of Venice (Press Release), 2025, Traces of blue indigo on 34,000 year old grinding tools suggest Paleolithic plant use scenarios, https://phys.org/news. Accessed online 2 September 2025/

Longo, Laura et al., 2025, Direct evidence for processing Isatis tinctoria L., a non-nutritional plant, 32–34,000 years ago, 9 May 2025, PLOS One, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal/pone.0321262. Accessed 3 September 2025.

A COMET PETROGLYPH AT LOS ALAMOS:

I have written before on the subject of comets pictured in rock art here on RockArtBlog. I find the concept of an astrophysical manifestation like a comet being recorded in this way to be eminently reasonable, something as amazing as a close approach of a comet might well spark the desire to make a record.

Los Alamos petroglyph panel. Photograph by Bruce Maase, 2013.

One apparently memorable comet appearance was in 1264 AD. This one was supposedly seen pretty much worldwide, and mentioned in records. According to Herman E. Bender “Unambiguous images of comets in North American rock art are rare. What is or may well be even more rare to non-existent was/is the ability to date the images. This potentially changed with discovery in or about 2013 of a comet pictograph near Los Alamos, New Mexico. The comet in the pictograph was identified by a scientific team as the Great Comet of 1264 AD. Backing up the claim, European and Asian medieval comet records firmly indicated the comet had entered eastern Orion in mid-August and had five tails. Because three stars in a row, i.e. Orion’s ‘belt stars’, were indicated on the rock art panel along with the comet and its five tails, the comet in the pictograph was dated to mid to late August, 1264 AD.” (Bender 2023:21)

Los Alamos petroglyph panel. Photograph by Bruce Maase, 2013.

Here Bender is correlating the vertical row of three dots below the supposed image of the comet to the belt of the constellation Orion. 

One interesting identifying feature of the comet portrayal is that it is shown with five lines of dots that are taken as its tails. “Five tails was a salient feature of the Great Comet of 1264 AD. The Korean records stated that, ‘On a chia-hsi~ day in the seventh month of the fifth year of WSnjong [26th July] a comet was observed at the NE. Its tail, which measured 7 to 8 ft, gradually divided itself into five branches pointing towards the NW.’ Further corroborating the five tails time-line for August 17 (1264 AD), the Korean record went on to state that, ‘On a jen-yin day in the eighth month [23rd August] the [five] branches reunited and the tail increased in length.’ The European records leave no doubt that the comet sported five separate tails, but also echo Asian records of where the comet was seen with its five tails on the early morning of August 17, 1264 AD, i.e. ‘between the Dog [Sirius and Canis Major] and Orion’.” (Bender 2023:21-22) I have so far been the actual dating method used to reach this conclusion, however, Bruce Masse (2013) implies that it was estimated based on the position of the comet to a supposed indication of the constellation Orion on the panel. This position was also found in the Korean record.

Woodblock print depicting the great comet of 1264, dated 15th century. Internet image, public domain.

The remarkable appearance of this comet would have been memorable indeed. Donald K. Yeomans (2007) reported that “on July 26, Chinese observers reported the tail spanning 100 degrees.” This is obviously an extremely impressive manifestation with it spanning 100 degrees across the arc of the sky. This appearance was well recorded with J. R. Hind citing over three dozen contemporary sources in his 1884 book On the expected return of the great comet of 1264 and 1556.

Adoration of the Magi, Giotto di Bondoni, 1301. From Karam, 2017, p. 72.

As I had stated above, I find the concept of an astrophysical manifestation like a comet being recorded in this way to be eminently reasonable, something as amazing as a close approach of a comet might well spark the desire to make a record. A more famous example of such a record is the fresco painting Adoration of the Magi by Giotto di Bondoni in 1301 in the Scrovegni Chapel in Padua, Italy. In this, Bondoni shows the magi before the Holy Family in the manger with the Star of Bethlehem shown in the form of a comet.

Having been lucky enough to have seen a few comets in my life I can well understand the urge to leave a record of such a wondrous occasion. While I have not always totally agreed with Bender’s analyses in other things I can find no reason to disagree with this one. Congratulations to all involved in winkling out the facts to this fascinating story.

NOTE 1: If you wish to refer to P. Andrew Karam’s (2017) book on comets be sure to check pages 66 and 67 where he has included my photograph and field sketch of the great comet from the famous panel in Chaco Canyon.

NOTE 2: Some images in this posting were retrieved from the internet with a search for public domain photographs. If any of these images are not intended to be public domain, I apologize, and will happily provide the picture credits if the owner will contact me with them. For further information on these reports you should read the original reports at the sites listed below.

REFERENCES:

Bender, Herman E., 2023, The Great Comet of 1264 AC in Rock Art – Two Views from North America, Hanwakan Center for Prehistoric Astronomy, Cosmology and Cultural Landscape Studies, Inc., Fond du Lac, Wisconsin, USA. Accessed online 14 September 2024.

Hind, J. R., 1848, On the expected return of the great comet of 1264 and 1556, Published by G. Hoby, 123 Mount Street, Berkeley Square, London. Accessed online 6 August 2025.

Karam, P. Andrew, 2017, Comets, Reaktion Books, London.

Masse, W. Bruce et al., 2013, A Probable Ancestral Pueblo Comet Petroglyph at Los Alamos National Laboratory, PowerPoint presentation at IFRAO 2013 conference, American Rock Art Research Association, Glendale, Arizona. Accessed online 7 August 2025/

Yeomans, Donald K., 2007, Great Comets in History, from Solar System Dynamics, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology. Accessed online 6 August 2025.