BOAT PETROGLYPHS IN THE DESERT OF SUDAN:

Map of the study area. Cooper and Vanhulle, 2023, Fig. 1.

Recent rock art surveys in the eastern desert of Sudan in the Sahara desert have found quite a lot of rock art indicating that back during the Mesolithic and Neolithic periods the region was wetter and supported populations of pastoralist. Interestingly, along with the expected range of zoomorphs and cattle one would expect to find in pastoralist rock art, there are also representations of a new type of boat.

Boat petroglyph. Cooper and Vanhulle, 2023, fig. 4.

“The Eastern Desert of Sudan, commonly referred to as the ‘Atbai’, is a vast desert expanse known for its goldmines and as the homeland of nomadic groups. Within this desert, the topography, ecology, and local archaeological material differs appreciably. On the main range of the Red Sea Hills, nearing the coast, many large cemeteries and nomadic habitation sites occur, owing in part to the regularity of orographic rainfall and water sources in the base of wadis. Contrasting this ecology are the interior deserts closer to the Nile River and west of the Red Sea Hills, sometimes called the Awliib or Atmur in Beha, which exhibit much flatter topography punctuated with inselbergs, sand-dunes, and numerous rocky plateaus and a much sparser record of habitation in historical periods.” (Cooper and Vanhulle 2023)  This lack of signs of habitation during the historic period is not doubt the result of the drying up of the Sahara during the early Neolithic Period.

Petroglyph locations and variations. Cooper and Vanhulle, 2023, fig. 11.

“In the nineteenth century, this region became well-known as the area of the ‘Korosko Road’, and established caravan path providing a shortcut through the Nile bend linking the settlements of Korosko and Abu Hamed. As part of the broad aims of the Atbai Survey Project, two seasons (2018-2019) of rock art surveys were conducted in the region of the flat deserts between Gevel Rafit and Wadi Halfa, especially around the massif of Gebel Nahoganet and Nasb Enat. Owing to the extreme aridity of this region, habitation sites post third millenium BCE are extremely ephemeral in nature and can be generally attributed to the expeditions of gold miners and foreign expeditions. Multi-period nomadic occupations are attested at the few specific sites where surface water is available. The exception to this pattern is the great proliferation of sites of Mesolithic and Neolithic date which are comparatively common in the Atbai’s flat Atmur wastes. Many inselbergs and rock shelters reveal scatterings of pottery from these periods, and it is likely that much of the rock art repertoire, the majority being faunal in nature, belongs to this phase of habitation. As with other ‘Saharan’ rock art zones, the types of fauna indicate an altogether wetter environment than the hyper-arid present, with conditions suitable for a variety of African savannah fauna like the giraffe and even elephant. The ubiquity of cattle in the rock art record suggests that the region was occupied by cattle pastoralists until an as yet unknown date, possibly as late as the third or second millennium BCE. After this point, decreasing rainfall rendered cattle pastoralism impossible. The specific desert region east of Wadi Halfa is in fact so arid and devoid of watering opportunities that it is rarely used by pastoralists today. Only seldom are camel and goat herders to be found in this Atmur desert, usually around the wells at Murrat.” (Cooper and Vanhulle 2023) As the authors said above, the climate of the Sahara having been so wet and fertile for life came as a huge surprise when we learned about it. Apparently much of what is now the Sahara desert once had vegetation, water and fauna, as well as human habitation.

The authors discussed a number of the examples of fauna as the subject at some of these sites, but at this time I will focus on the uniquely-shaped watercraft they found in surprising quantity.

The tunnel petroglyph panel (dotted outline). Cooper and Vanhulle, 2023, fig. 2A.

The tunnel petroglyph panel. Cooper and Vanhulle, 2023, fig. 3.

“On a series of small inselbergs (rock-island outcrops) south of Gebel Nahoganet, approximately 150 km from the nearest section of Nile, the survey identified four new rock art sites, mainly exhibiting faunal depictions. However, one of these sites, AS19.26, exhibited a notable feature in depicting a large group of at least six boats, reproduced along a horizontal axis of over two meters on the western wall of a small natural rock-tunnel that leads to the center of the inselberg. A single boat depiction was also produced on the other side of the tunnel on the eastern wall, almost as far back in the tunnel as is feasibly traversable by an ancient artist. In all, there are nine discernible features on the main ‘western’ wall. Six of these features can be identified as boats and the remainder are somewhat enigmatic in composition. These boats were arranged in an exceptionally unique manner on the rock surface in that they were depicted along the walls of the tunnel. The tunnel is a little over a meter in height and opens out into a natural rock shelter protected by a series of large boulders on the south side of the inselberg, making the sit in all probability suitable for habitation and refuge, shielded from the prevailing north wind. The curved nature of the rock as well as the cramped conditions made epigraphic recording exceedingly difficult, requiring instead digital epigraphic methods. Access to the tunnel requires climbing, a process that presumably was also true for the ancient rock art maker(s), although it is impossible to ascertain the height of the ancient shelter floor from our reconnoiter.” (Cooper and Vanhulle 2023)  One would not normally expect pictures of a fleet of boats to be found 150 kilometers (approx. 93 miles) from the nearest major body of water. Doesn’t this confirm that during the Mesolithic and Neolithic periods there may have been lakes in the area that were suitable for boating?

Boat petroglyphs. Cooper and Vanhulle, 2023, fig. 6.

Boat petroglyphs. Cooper and Vanhulle, 2023, fig. 8.

The authors attempt to ascertain who might have created these images. “It is not easy to ascribe these specific boat depictions to any individual cultural grouping, although a ‘Nile connection’ seems likely based on the importance of the boat.” (Cooper and Vanhulle 2023) Given this assumption, they find it unlikely that the images were created by an early Egyptian society. “Perhaps a more plausible explanation then is to connect or attribute these images to local Nubian groups centered in the Nubian Nile Valley and/or the Atbai desert.” (Cooper and Vanhulle 2023) In effect they are saying that, while boat portrayals are common in rock art along the Egyptian stretch of the Nile River, these boat are unique in shape and have no analog in that area, thus, they conclude that this shape of watercraft is likely an early Nubian development rather than Egyptian. Indeed, given the relatively thick and stubby appearance of these boats they may have been reed boats made from papyrus by Nubians.

NOTE: Some images in this posting were retrieved from the internet with a search for public domain photographs. If any of these images are not intended to be public domain, I apologize, and will happily provide the picture credits if the owner will contact me with them. For further information on these reports you should read the original reports at the sites listed below.

REFERENCE:

Cooper, Julien, and Dorian Vanhulle, 2023, Rock Art Surveys in the Sudanese Eastern Desert: Results of the 2018-2019 Atbai Survey Project, The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, Volume 109 (1-2), 189-208. DOI:10.1177/03075133231211917.  Accessed online 12 June 2024.

THE DANGER TO COSQUER CAVE ART:

Location of Cosquer Cave. Image from  thearchaeologist.org.

Diagram of Cosquer Cave. Image from thearchaeologist.org.

Rising sea levels – that, in a nutshell, is one of the greatest dangers to the magnificent art in Cosquer Cave, the undersea Paleolithic site in the Mediterranean off the coast of southern France. Sea levels have risen threatening art painted on the cave walls. The cave entrance is 37 meters (120 feet) below the Mediterranean and three cave divers died exploring the cave before the art was discovered. Indeed, the rising sea level has already claimed some of the paintings in the long passageway leading upward to the main chamber. So human induced climate change is now affecting our field of study – cave art.

Three horses, Cosquer Cave, France. Internet image, public domain. Note, the water level is right below the lower horses.  

Aurochs image, Cosquer Cave, France. Internet image, public domain. 

A project to record all of the art in detail has been led by a French archaeologist named Luc Vanrell, “the cave and its treasures, some dating back more than 30,000 years, are in grave danger. Climate change and water and plastic pollution are threatening to wash away the art prehistoric men and women created over 15 millenia. Since a sudden 12-centimeter (near-five-inch)rise in the sea level there in 2011 Vanrell and his colleagues have been in a race against time to record everything they can. Every year the high water mark rises a few more millimeters, eating away a little more of the ancient paintings and carvings.” (Rochiccioli 2022)

 

               

Bison, Cosquer Cave, France.  Image from bradshawfoundation.com.

“To reach the only place in the world where cave paintings of prehistoric marine life have been found, archaeologists have to dive to the bottom of the Mediterranean off southern France. Then they have to negotiate a 137 meter (yard) natural tunnel into the rock, passing through the mouth of the cave until they emerge into a huge cavern, much of it now submerged.” (Rochiccioli 2022)

                

The Great Auks, Cosquer Cave, France. Image from bradshawfoundation.com.

Ibex, Cosquer Cave, France. Image from bradshawfoundation.com.

“In the cave, marine animals make up a significant proportion of the figures. Auks, seals, fish and various markings that may represent jellyfish were painted or engraved on the walls. An auk can also be seen on the ‘ceiling’. This is probably a great auk, which was still widespread in the North Atlantic in the nineteenth century.” (Archaeologist 2022)

Megaceros, Cosquer Cave, France. Image from bradshawfoundation.com.

While there is no practical way to save the original art in the foreseeable future, the French are reproducing the art cave up on dry ground. “The idea of making a replica of the site was first mooted soon after the cave was discovered. But it wasn’t until 2016 that the regional government decided that it would be in a renovated modern building in Marseille next to Mucem, the museum of European and Mediterranean civilizations at the mouth of the city’s Old Port. Using the 3D data gathered by the archaeological teams, the 23-million-euro ($24-million) replica is slightly smaller than the original cave but includes copies of all the paintings and 90 percent of the carvings, said Laurent Delbos from Klebert Rossillon, the company which copied the Chauvet cave in 2015.” (Bartek 2022)

               

Inside the replica Cosquer Cave, France. Internet image, public domain.     

What an absolutely wonderful project, a three dimensional exact reproduction of the bulk of the cave and its art. Not content with just recording everything for posterity the French are reproducing the experience of visiting Cosquer Cave, and making it available to the people who would never have had a chance to dive to the real one.

NOTE: Some images in this posting were retrieved from the internet with a search for public domain photographs. If any of these images are not intended to be public domain, I apologize, and will happily provide the picture credits if the owner will contact me with them. For further information on these reports you should read the original reports at the sites listed below.

REFERENCES:

Archaeologist (The), 2022, The Paleolithic Mysteries of the Underwater ‘Cosquer Cave’ in France, 3 August 2022, https://www.thearchaeologist.org. Accessed online 9 July 2024.

Bartek, Jan, 2022, Race To Save Magnificent Underwater Stone Age Paintings Hidden In The Cosquer Cave, 6 June 2022, https://www.ancientpages.com. Accessed online 17 June 2024.

Rochiccioli, Pierre, 2022, Race to save undersea Stone Age cave art masterpieces, 30 May 2022, https://phys.org/news/. Accessed online 17 June 2024.

DNA ANALYSIS FROM CAVE PAINTINGS:

                

DNA from sediment reveals history of Denisova Cave. Image from phys.org.

For some time now it has been possible for scientists to extract DNA from the sediments in caves, including human and hominin DNA. This leads me to speculate that perhaps we may also be able to detect DNA from manually applied cave paintings such as positive handprints and get an analysis of the artists themselves. Considering that the human body sheds cells constantly it would seem logical that any paint on a cave wall that was applied by hand might contain detectable DNA in human skin cells shed during the application of that paint. And with the advances in DNA analysis this might be a way to personal data such as skin color, eye color, gender, and other data that would allow us to generate a detailed picture of the artist.

Denisova Cave sediment. Image from sci.news.

“Organisms are constantly shedding cells throughout their lives. Humans, for example, shed some half a billion skin cells every day. Much of this genetic material is quickly degraded, but some small fraction is safeguarded for millennia through sedimentary mineral-binding and is out there waiting for us to recover and study it. Now, we can conduct some remarkable research by recovering an immense diversity of environmental DNA from very small amounts of sediment, and in the total absence of any surviving biological tissues.” (Donovan 2020)

       

Negative handprint on cave wall. Online image, public domain.

For the negatively applied handprint, the kind where the hand is placed on the wall of the cave as a stencil and paint is blown around it to leave the image of the hand in outline, we usually assume that the paint was blown from the artist’ mouth. This paint sample should then have traces of human saliva as well as cells shed from the lining of the mouth that could be detected and analyzed.

Much like modern paints, ancient paints were combinations of pigments providing the color, binders hardening and preserving the paint, and the vehicle or liquid that carries the other ingredients for application. For ancient artists the pigments were invariably natural materials such as ochers, colored clays, charcoal, and less commonly plant dyes and materials. The binder could be natural fats, resins, plant saps, milk or eggs. Another possibility was urine used as a mordant (a chemical that fixes a dye or paint by combining with it to form an insoluble compound). In the case of milk used as a binder it also provides the vehicle (as would urine) but most commonly the vehicle would probably have been water (one benefit of mixing your paint with urine would have been that it would not have to have been carried separately, the artist would have a readily available supply).

“So how did the DNA get there? The researchers can’t say exactly, but it wouldn't be too difficult. Humans shed DNA constantly. Any traces of urine, feces, spit, sweat, blood or hair would all contain minute bits of DNA. These compounds actually bind with minerals in bone, and likely did the same with minerals in the soil, preserving it, reports Charles Q. Choi at LiveScience.” (Daley 2017) Once the science of DNA analysis was developed scientists used it to find what life forms had existed prehistorically in a place by testing undisturbed soil samples. The results were surprisingly rich turning up DNA from virtually every animal and insect that had passed that way, and stratigraphy allowed researchers to estimate timelines for those occupations.

“As Lizzie Wade at Science reports, when the team first sequenced the DNA from the sediments, they were overwhelmed. There are trillions of fragments of DNA in a teaspoon of dirt, mostly material from other mammals, including woolly mammoth, woolly rhinoceroses, cave bears and cave hyenas. To cut through the clutter and examine only hominid DNA, they created a molecular “hook” made from the mitochondrial DNA of modern humans. The hook was able to capture DNA fragments that most resembled itself, pulling out fragments from Neanderthals at four sites, including in sediment layers where bones or tools from the species were not present. They also found more DNA from Denisovans, an enigmatic human ancestor found only in single cave in Russia.” (Daley 2017) So, if DNA can be retrieved from cave soil there would seem to be no reason that it could not also be retrieved from paint. This, however, would depend on human contact with the paint.

Positive handprints. Image from Shutterstock.

In his 1993 paper on cave paint analysis Jean Clottes wrote “In the large cave of Niaux, direct observation and macrophotographs have shown that on the panels of signs dubbed ‘the signpost panels’, located were three passages branch off, the paint for some of the dots and red lines had been applied with fingers. On a few, even the fingerprints can be made out.” (Clottes 1993) So, we do have examples of manually applied paint and, since we know that human skin is constantly shedding cells from the outer surface we may be able to detect DNA in these examples. This would also apply to positive handprints where the paint was applied to the hand which was then pressed to the stone.

The other example I mentioned above is the negative handprint where the hand is placed on the wall of the cave as a stencil and paint is blown around it to leave the image of the hand in outline, we usually assume that the paint was blown from the artist’ mouth. This paint sample should then have traces of human saliva as well as cells shed from the lining of the mouth that could be detected and analyzed.

            

Positive and negative handprints, Cueva de los Manos,Argentina. Image from pinterest.

So, to what extent could we hope to use these techniques to learn about the artist’s genetics? “This ancient DNA appears to be relatively widespread. The scientists tested sediments from nine known archaeological sites in Belgium, Croatia, France, Russia and Spain. The sediments dated from between 14,000 and 550,000 years ago, with the oldest intact DNA found in sediments dating from 240,000 years ago.” (Henriques 2017) These examples cited do not distinguish between mitochondrial and nuclear DNA.

B. Vernot et al. (2021) have developed techniques to retrieve and analyze nuclear DNA to retrieve even more data. “Mitochondrial DNA has been retrieved from cave sediments, but provides limited value for studying population relationships. We therefore developed methods for the enrichment and analysis of nuclear DNA from sediments, and applied them to cave deposits in western Europe and southern Siberia dated to between approximately 200,000 and 50,000 years ago. We detect a population replacement in northern Spain approximately 100,000 years ago, accompanied by a turnover of mitochondrial DNA. We also identify to radiation events in Neanderthal history during the early part of the Late Pleistocene. Our work lays the ground for studying the population history of ancient hominins from trace amounts of nuclear DNA in sediments.” (Vernot et al. 2021)

Genetic analysis of DNA can provide a world of information about the person that the DNA came from. Such things as gender, hair, eye and skin color, and even susceptibility to some diseases could be determined. With DNA it would be possible to learn if a painter had contributed more than one image to a panel, or images in more than one location. It may also be possible to determine the group identity and population dynamics of the painters once a sufficient number of samples have been identified and analyzed. 

I am in no way a geneticist so I pass this suggestion to someone who is, perhaps a graduate student looking for a thesis project. Will it not be exciting to actually get to know a cave painter on an individual basis? I, for one, can hardly wait.

NOTE: Some images in this posting were retrieved from the internet with a search for public domain photographs. If any of these images are not intended to be public domain, I apologize, and will happily provide the picture credits if the owner will contact me with them. For further information on these reports you should read the original reports at the sites listed below.

REFERENCES:

Clottes, Jean, 1993, Paint Analyses from Several Magdalenian Caves in the Ariega Region of France, Journal of Archaeological Science, 1993, 20, pp. 223 - 235. Accessed online 4 August 2024.

Daley, Jason, 2017, Scientists Extract DNA From Ancient Humans Out of Cave Dirt, 28 April 2017, Smithsonian Magazine Online, https://www.smithsonianmag.com. Accessed online 6 August 2024.

Donovan, Michelle, 2020, Thousands of species recorded in a speck of soil, 10 September 2020, News release, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.

Henriques, Martha, 2017, DNA from ancient humans discovered in 240,000-year-old soil, 27 April 2017, International Business Times, 4 August 2017. Accessed online 5 August 2024.

Vernot, B. et al., 2021, Unearthing Neanderthal population history using nuclear and mitochondrial DNA from cave sediments, Science, 15 April 2021, www.sciencemag.org. Accessed online 4 August 2024.

A NEW CANDIDATE FOR THE WORLD’S OLDEST KNOWN ARTWORK:

Back in 2021 (February 13) I published a column titled ‘A New Candidate for the Oldest Pictograph – the Sulewesi Pig.’ This was based on reports of newly dated painted images found in a cave on the Indonesian island of Sulawesi. Now, another cave on Sulawesi has provided an even older painted figure as well as re-dating the one previously reported on. Researchers used a brand new dating technique to re-date the previously reported figure as well as date the newly discovered image to an even older period.

Approx. 52k year old narrative painting of Sulawesi native pig surrounded by humans (hunters?). Image from Lawler, 2024.

The paper reporting on these new discoveries was produced by a large team of 23 authors. It describes in detail the new dating technique as well as the remarkable results achieved in dating these paintings.

“Previous dating research indicated that the Indonesian island of Sulawesi is host to some of the oldest known rock art. That work was based on solution uranium-series (U-series) analysis of calcite deposits overlying rock art in the limestone caves of Maros-Pangkep, South Sulawesi. Here we use a novel application of this approach—laser-ablation U-series imaging—to re-date some of the earliest cave art in this karst area and to determine the age of stylistically similar motifs at other Maros-Pangkep sites. This method provides enhanced spatial accuracy, resulting in older minimum ages for previously dated art. We show that a hunting scene from Leang Bulu’ Sipong 4, which was originally dated using the previous approach to a minimum of 43,900 thousand years ago (ka)3, has a minimum age of 50.2 ± 2.2 ka, and so is at least 4,040 years older than thought. Using the imaging approach, we also assign a minimum age of 53.5 ± 2.3 ka to a newly described cave art scene at Leang Karampuang. Painted at least 51,200 years ago, this narrative composition, which depicts human-like figures interacting with a pig, is now the earliest known surviving example of representational art, and visual storytelling, in the world.” (Aubert 2024) This is also the oldest example of a painted image known today.

Sus celebensis, Sulawesi Warty Pig. Photograph by Coke Smith.

Maxime Aubert, an archeologist at Australia’s Griffith University and a member of the team that did this study reported that “The painting, which is in poor condition, shows three people around a wild pig. ‘We don't know exactly what they're doing,’ Aubert admitted. He speculated that the paintings were likely made by the first group of humans who moved through Southeast Asia before arriving in Australia around 65,000 years ago. ‘It's probably just a matter of time before we find samples that are older,’ Aubert added.” (Lawler 2024) This is possibly a hunting scene, but the authors admit that the painting is in such poor condition that the activity of the human figures cannot be determined.

Up until now it has been assumed (based upon the imagery in the painted caves of Europe) that human representation in Paleolithic painting did not exist until relatively later in the sequence. These panels from Sulawesi, however, put the lie to that with human figures represented in the oldest painted panels yet discovered and dated.

“It is evident from these findings that the use of figurative depiction has a particularly deep antiquity in the history of early human visual culture. Presently, the earliest widely accepted evidence for image-making by our species is from Middle Stone Age southern Africa (around 100–75 ka) and comprises geometric motifs (grid-like patterns) incised on small ochre nodules. It is therefore an open question whether the origin of figurative depiction can be traced to an artistic culture that arose in Africa after the emergence of this early tradition of producing non-representational marks, or somewhere outside it after the dispersal of H. sapiens, including in Southeast Asia.” (Aubert 2024) The ‘figurative depiction’ referenced in this comment is not restricted to the depiction of human figures, indeed, this comment is referring to the figure of the pig as well as the humans around it.

Location of caves containing paintings, Sulawesi, Indonesia. Online image, public domain.

Although it is in pretty poor shape, the researchers are confident that the large dated figure is one of Sulawesi’s native pigs, they believe that it is a representation of Sus celebensis, the Sulawesi Warty Pig.

“The visible elements of the scene are dominated by a large (92 . 38 cm) naturalistic red painting of a suid (most probably S. celebensis). This animal figure is represented as a pictorial outline shown in side (profile) view with an infill pattern consisting of painted strokes or lines. It is therefore consistent in style with the visual convention used to represent pigs and other animals in the dated Late Pleistocene rock art of South Sulawesi, including at Leang Bulu’ Sipong 4. Other pig motifs (n = 5) are present at Leang Karampuang, but do not seem to be associated with the dated panel. In the latter, the pig is standing in a static position with its mouth partly open. At least three human-like figures (denoted H1 to H3) were depicted in close association with the pig as part of a single composition. The former were portrayed using the same red-hued pigment and broadly the same stylistic convention as the pig, although they are smaller in size.” (Aubert 2024) Does the relative size of the pig and the assumed humans have any meaning. They are so small relative to the pig, does this perhaps indicate that it has some great measure of importance to the humans, a deity, a clan symbol?

As Aubert said above, the team is now assuming that they will find even older examples with continued dating. This really turns the ‘European Art First’ world around, doesn’t it?

NOTE: Some images in this posting were retrieved from the internet with a search for public domain photographs. If any of these images are not intended to be public domain, I apologize, and will happily provide the picture credits if the owner will contact me with them. For further information on these reports you should read the original reports at the sites listed below.

REFERENCES:

Lawler, Daniel, 2024, World’s oldest artwork discovered in Indonesian cave, 3 July 2024, https://phys.org/news/. Accessed online 3 July 2024.

Aubert, Maxime, 2024, Narrative cave art in Indonesia by 51,200 years ago, 3 July 2024, www.nature.com. Accessed online 3 July 2024.

PETROGLYPH BOUNDARY MARKERS?

One question frequently heard in rock art studies is “are these border markers?” Rock art is often proposed to have been placed in a certain location as a sign post to other people than the area’s inhabitants.

Serpent petroglyph at Raudal Palomazón, illustration from Riris et al., 2024, fig. 4.

I remember that back in the 1980s many of my co-enthusiasts placed a great deal of significance in the location of rock art, and they were probably correct in doing so. If rock art was near signs of habitation it was supposedly placed there like a public sign, perhaps for educational purposes. If it was sort of hidden away in an alcove or something it was thought to have been placed there for secret rites and ceremonies. But, if it was in a location that is easy to see, and without any nearby signs of occupation, it was thought to possibly be some sort of boundary marker. 

Study area, illustration from Riris et al., 2024.

This theory has again come up along the Orinoco River in Columbia and Venezuela, images of gigantic snakes assumed to represent border markers, or warnings – sort of a NO TRESSPASSING sign. “Our results demonstrate the profound influence of artistic practices on pre-Columbian cultural landscapes. Even considering the exceptional diversity and size of many northern South American rock art sites. Middle Orinoco monumental engravings represent a unique tradition of large-scale artistic production. Ethnohistorical and archaeological data illustrate the multi-ethnic character of Indigenous societies in the region with recent work showing how symbolic material culture was key to negotiating identities in an environment of sustained cultural interaction. The potential associations of these sites with Indigenous myths today underscore the central role of rock art in the appropriation of contested landscapes. With reference to the perilous connotations of gigantic snakes emphasized in, for example, Piaroa and Warekena (Arawak) myths alike, we suggest that pre-Columbian people perceived the gigantic snakes as an ever-present reminder of ancient conflicts and negotiations between supernatural beings and humans. As cultural agents, these motifs would need to be related to accordingly. - Our analysis of monumental rock art suggests that panels likely acted as markers on the edges of group boundaries, and as a protective agent within domestic spaces. The visibility and prominence of gigantic snake outcrops from the river and riverbanks emphasizes this notion.” (Riris et al. 2024) It has been suggested that some of these snakes are the largest petroglyphs ever recorded. I couldn’t speak to that except to remind readers that there are some pretty big examples of rock art all over the world. These, however, were apparently placed where they were purposely to be seen, and great size enhances that emphasis.

Serpent petroglyph from Orinoco River, illustration from Riris et al., 2024.

“During the 18th century C.E. voyagers roving (?) the Orinoco River—a vast watery highway stretching across the northeastern corner of South America—reported dozens of mysterious rock engravings of snakes crowning the rocky hilltops. The engravings have remained mysterious over the centuries, their whereabouts in today’s Colombia and Venezuela largely passed down by local word of mouth. Now, in the first systematic study by modern archaeologists, researchers have mapped 13 sites bearing gigantic pre-Hispanic artwork—mostly of serpents—confirming both local stories and explorers’ accounts.” (Rubiano A. 2024) Sparsely occupied and remote areas will obviously be explored later, and science gets to them last.

Serpent petroglyph from Orinoco River, illustration from Riris et al., 2024. Note human figures in lower right for scale.

Serpent petroglyph from Orinoco River, illustration from Riris et al., 2024. Detail of coiled tail at right side.

“Depictions of anacondas, centipedes, human figures and giant rodents are among the engravings which may hark back to myths told for more than 2,000 years. Now the first scientific documentation of this art finds that some of these engravings are among the largest in the world. Their size makes them visible from a distance, suggesting they were used as ancient signposts that told travelers along the prehistoric trade route whose territory they were entering and leaving.” (Pappas 2024) Remember, the serpent as a theme is common in rock art throughout North and Central America, so this extends that theme farther south into South America. They do not all mean the same thing, but whatever their local meaning they are common.

Serpent petroglyph from Cerro Dagua, Orinoco River, illustration from Riris et al., 2024, fig. 6. For scale, the span of the bat-like creature in lower right is approx. 4 meters.

“Separately, we have carried out excavations, material culture analyses and chronometric dating on pre-Columbian settlement sites in and around the Atures Rapids. This work has documented a succession of cultural complexes that span two main periods: an early occupation period ranging from 100 BC–AD 620 (Saladoid-Barrancoid and Cedeñoid ceramics, Early Picure complex) and a late occupation period from AD 1030–1480 (Arauquinoid, Valloid and Nericagua ceramics; Late Picure/Late Rabo de Cochino complexes). Following ephemeral initial occupations, settlements grew over time, culminating in the establishment of several multi-ethnic communities before the Conquest (AD 1500). Although not directly dated, a small number of petroglyph motifs are paralleled in archaeological ceramic decoration.” (Riris et al. 2024) Which may help in the dating, common themes may have common meaning and indicate a common time frame. The idea being that as a culture evolves and its beliefs are altered by time, the symbols and visual icons to represent them will also evolve.

Serpent petroglyph from Casuarito Norte, Orinoco River, illustration from Riris et al., 2024, fig. 5. 

“Starting at least 9200 years ago, several Indigenous groups inhabited the Orinoco region. Distinct styles of quartz tools, clay pots, and other objects suggest these groups used the river as a highway to trade objects, techniques, and materials. By the time the first Spanish missionaries arrived in the 14th century, at least seven different groups were trading, marrying, allying, and fighting with one another in a complex political network. Some contemporary Indigenous groups, including the Arawaks and Piaroa, descend from these ancient societies. When the researchers behind the new study first arrived in the region in 2015, they were stunned by the engravings made by the ancient Indigenous people. “The first time I saw one of them, it was from the window of a moving vehicle, [seeing a] hill like any other hill, but all of a sudden, [the snake] appeared,” recalls Philip Riris, an archaeologist at Bournemouth University and lead author of the study.” (Rubiano 2024)

“Though area residents have long been aware of the rock art, the archeology of the Middle to Upper Orinoco had been little studied by outsiders, says paper co-author Jose R. Oliver, a reader in Latin American archeology at University College London. He and his co-authors, Philip Riris of Bournemouth University in England and Natalia Lozada Mendieta of the University of the Andes in Columbia, wanted to document these sites both for scientific and conservation reasons. They surveyed a region centered around the Atures Rapids in the Middle Orinoco, a place where the river becomes impassible by canoe and travelers have to portage over land. ‘Everything we knew about the archeology of the region suggested that it was this meeting point where different cultures came together and actively traded and, in some cases, probably intermarried,’ Riris says.” (Pappas 2024) Another example perhaps of the local people always knowing about it but when a visitor from outside first sees it, it is “discovered.”

So to reiterate - if rock art was near habitation sites it was supposedly placed there like a public sign for our own people, perhaps for educational purposes. If it was sort of hidden away in an alcove or something it was thought to have been placed there for secret rites and ceremonies. But, if it was in a location that is easy to see, and without any nearby signs of occupation, it was thought to possibly be some sort of boundary marker, a signboard or announcement to others. The idea was that the location of a petroglyph or pictograph will help deduce its possible meaning. Nowadays that idea goes under the more picturesque designation of ‘Rock Art’s Placement in the Landscape’ but the basic theories have changed very little.

NOTE: Some images in this posting were retrieved from the internet with a search for public domain photographs. If any of these images are not intended to be public domain, I apologize, and will happily provide the picture credits if the owner will contact me with them. For further information on these reports you should read the original reports at the sites listed below.

REFERENCES:

Pappas, Stephanie, 2024, Ancient Snake and Centipede Carvings Are Among World’s Largest Rock Engravings, 3 June 2024, https://www.scientificamerican.com. Accessed online 4 June 2024.

Riris, Philip, Jose Ramon Oliver, Natalia Lozada Mendieta, 2024, Monumental Snake Engravings of the Orinoco River, 4 June 2024, Published online by Cambridge University Press, 4 June 2024, pp. 724-742, Accessed online 4 June 2024.

Rubiano A., Maria Paula, 2024, Gigantic snake carvings may have been ancient ‘road signs,’ 3 June 2024, https://www.science.org. Accessed online 4 June 2024