ROCK ART HAS BEEN DISCOVERED NEAR THE RUINS OF MACHU PICCHU:

Machu Picchu, Peru. Internet photograph, public domain.

Pretty much everybody, at least everybody interested in archaeology, has heard of the famous site of Machu Picchu, Peru, discovered by Hiram Bingham in 1911. Actually, discovered is incorrect as it was never lost, locals who lived in that area knew of it all along, Bingham had been taken there by a native guide. Recently rock art has been discovered near Machu Picchu. Again, referred to as being discovered by an outside visitor, although a native guide apparently had known about it and taken the "discoverer" to it.

Petroglyph near Machu Picchu, Peru. Image Fernando Astete, National Geographic.

"More than 600 years ago the ancient Incas built a village in the Andes on the rocky outcrop that links the mountains Machu Picchu and Huayna Picchu, at an altitude of 2,490 meters (8169.29 ft.). It is a town whose original name would have been Llaqtapata, which is known today as Machu Picchu." (Marilo 2016) The ruined city of Machu Picchu is so overwhelming that, archaeologically speaking, it sort of sucks all the oxygen out of the area. So many of us thought of it as the big attraction and would never have thought to look for other archeology in the area. Recent discoveries, however, have brought to light a number of faded pictographs which have been brought to life through DStretch.

Camelids, Machu Picchu, Peru. Photograph Fernando Astete  Dirección Desconcentrada de Cultura de Cusco.

Archeologist Francisco Huarcaya, however, was aware of the probability of other significant discoveries to be made in the area around Machu Picchu. “Human remains and rock art have been discovered on the banks of the Vilcanota River along the railway leading to the Archaeological Park of Machu Picchu by archaeologists from the Decentralized Culture Directorate in Cusco. Archaeologist Francisco Huarcaya said the images, including camelids, the sun, and geometric shapes were painted on different parts of a huge rock. He thinks they could be associated with guardian deities in the form of mountains, and may have a funerary context. ‘There are other images that cannot be identified due to geological problems and rock wear cased by long exposure to the sun, wind, rain, and water filtration,’ Huarcaya said.” (Saraceni 2022)

Machu Picchu, Peru. Photograph Fernando Astete  Dirección Desconcentrada de Cultura de Cusco.

“Archaeologists from the Decentralized Culture Directorate in Cusco (DDC Cusco) have discovered samples of cave art in a sector of the Qhapaq Nan or Great Inca Trail that crosses the Archaeological Park of Machu Picchu in Peru. This information was provided by Francisco Huarcaya, the person responsible for the sector of the Inca Trail that crosses the aforementioned park.” (Andina 2022)

"New samples of rock art are found both painted and engraved on the surface of the rock and are mainly concentrated in two sectors of the magnificent Inca city, areas known as Paraguachayoq and Inkaterra. In the Pachamama sector, where there is a natural cave, the archeologists have registered more than six graphic groups, including pictographs and graffiti 'with various motifs formed by black figures and geimetric curvilinear designs.'" (Marilo 2016)

Machu Picchu, Peru. Photograph Fernando Astete  Dirección Desconcentrada de Cultura de Cusco.

"The archaeologist explained that this cave art was associated with a funerary context and the cult of the apus (Guardian deities in the form of mountains), such as the Huacayhuilca and Casamentuyoc mountains, as well as the Huilcamayo River - considered sacred and located near the area." (Andina 2022)

Closeup of previous design, Machu Picchu, Peru. Photograph Fernando Astete  Dirección Desconcentrada de Cultura de Cusco.

"In addition to said evidence of cave art, archaeologists found human bones of a skull and a femur, which were exposed to the surface and partially covered by brush." (Andina 2022) This may have been the weathered remains of an Inca mummy bundle but, as of now, I have seen nothing that really ties the pictographs and burial to Machu Picchu itself, except the location.

Machu Picchu, Peru. Photograph Fernando Astete  Dirección Desconcentrada de Cultura de Cusco.

It stands to reason that these other archeological discoveries would have been made around a location as special and highly prized to the Incas as this, the area around Machu Picchu. Indeed, I would expect other discoveries to be announced in the future. I would imagine that ever since the construction of Machu Picchu, the locals would have special feelings, even reverence, for it and the area around it. It makes sense that burials would be made there for some time after it was abandoned, to place them in the sacred presence.

NOTE: Some images in this posting were retrieved from the internet with a search for public domain photographs. If any of these images are not intended to be public domain, I apologize, and will happily provide the picture credits if the owner will contact me with them. For further information on these reports you should read the original reports at the sites listed below.

REFERENCES:

Andina (Agencia Peruana de Noticias), 2022, Peru: Cave art found on Inca Trail crossing Archaeological Park of Machu Picchu, 15 September 2022, https://andina.pe. Accessed online 16 September 2022.

Marilo, T. A., 2016, New Rock Paintings Discovered in Machu Picchu, 5 August 2016, https://www.ancient-origins.net. Accessed online 17 September 2022.

Saraceni, Jessica E., 2022, Rock Art Discovered Near Machu Picchu, 19 September 2022, https://www.archaeology.org/news?page=1. Accessed online 16 September 2022.

 

SEVERED HANDS IN ANCIENT EGYPTIAN ART:

Presenting hands to the Pharoah, Temple of Ramesses III, Medinet-Habu, Thebes, Egypt. Internet image, public domain.

We have known for quite some time about the practice in Ancient Egypt where a soldier would, after a battle, present to the Pharoah severed hands from enemy he had killed for a reward. Now deposits of the hands have been actually uncovered at Tell el-Daba, Avaris in ancient Egypt.

"Excavations conducted in a Hyksos palace at Tell el-Daba (ancient Avaris) in Egypt have for the first time provided archaeological evidence for a gruesome practice previously known only from texts and temple reliefs. Archaeological investigations led by Manfred Bietak and Irene Forstner-Muller in the northern part of the palace, which in its late phase has been attributed to King Khayan of the 15th Dynasty (c. 1600 B.C.), have uncovered pits containing altogether 16 severed right hands. A narrative found in the tomb of Ahmose, son of Ibana, at Eklab describes how after each battle against the Hyksos at Avaris and Sharuhen, the soldier presented an enemy hand as a trophy and was given as a reward the 'gold of valor'. Among additional evidence from the New Kingdom are representations depicting severed right hands being counted and put into a heap." (Ngo 2014) The hands presumably had to be from an adult male, and from the right side so the presenter could not use both hands from a deceased enemy to get paid twice.

Another image of hands being presented as trophies. Internet image, public domain.

“As narrative battle scenes show, the right hands had to be presented after the battle, as proof of slain enemies, in a ceremony in front of the king or the commander in chief. There must have been, however, also a symbolic connotation in the act of severing the hand. The Amada and Elephantine stelae of Amenhotep II mention the hanging of the corpses of six princes of Tahshy, slain by the pharaoh himself, in front of the walls of Thebes and their hands likewise, meaning that the hands were separately exposed on the outside of the walls. It would not make sense for counting but it could have been that severing the right hand deprived the miserable princes once and forever of their power.” (Bietak 2011) Possibly the displaying of the bodies and hands was to remind the population of the greatness of their Pharoah.

Until now no archaeological evidence of this gruesome custom has been found as no battleground of ancient Egypt has been identified with precision and investigated.” (Bietak 2011) In this instance the discovery of the hands was not at a battlefield, but at a temple, possibly presented as a sacrifice.

Photograph Axel Krause, Austrian Archaeological Institute in Cairo and the Inst. for Egyptology.

Photograph Axel Krause, Austrian Archaeological Institute in Cairo and the Inst. for Egyptology.

"A dozen severed hands found in tombs around a 3,500-year-old temple were likely tokens presented to a king of ancient Egypt to prove the valor of his soldiers in battle, a new study found. An new analysis of the site shows the hands, first uncovered in 2011, belonged to at leastd 12 people aged between 14 to 21. The hands were carefully removed from the bodies, likely soon after an enemy's death, before being placed in tombs around the throne room of King Khayan, a Hyksos ruler of Egypt's 15th dynasty." (Guenot 2023)

“Now, by mere chance, evidence of the presentation of right hands has come to light in the most recent excavation at Tell el-Daba, ancient Avaris, in autumn 2011. Investigations were resumed in the northern part of a Hyksos palace which can be attributed in its late phase to King Khayan of the Fifteenth Dynasty (see: EA 38, pp.38-41). The north-eastern palace façade with a monumental gate was uncovered and outside the palace, in front of what seems to be the severely destroyed throne room, were found two pits, containing one right hand each. In the later palace phase, these pits were covered by a building added to the outside of the palace façade serving as an annex to a four columned ‘broad-room’ – a building north-east of the palace which may have had a cultic function. Beyond this building, on top of a former extra-mural silo courtyard of the early palace phase, two more pits were found containing altogether 14 severed right hands. Some of them were of extraordinary size and robustness.” (Bietak 2011) These were undoubtedly buried as some sort of sacrifice, or offering to the gods.

The preponderance of pictorial proof of this practice is found at the Ramesseum, the mortuary temple of Ramesses III in the Necropolis at Thebes in Upper Egypt across from the city of Luxor. “Scenes of the great pharaoh and his army triumphing over the Hittite forces fleeing before Kadesh are represented on the pylon. Remains of the second court include part of the internal facade of the pylon and a portion of the Osiride portico on the right. Scenes of war and the alleged rout of the Hittites at Kadesh are repeated on the walls. In the upper registers, feast and honor of the phallic deity Min,God of fertility.” (Wikipedia)

Counting tongues, mortuary temple of Ramesses III, Medinet Habu, Thebes, Egypt. Internet image, public domain.

Counting phalluses, mortuary temple of Ramesses III, Medinet Habu, Thebes, Egypt. Internet image, public domain.

“Ramses III preserves several representations of counting body parts on the walls of his mortuary temple at Medinet Habu (ca. 1180 BC). At least four representations appear in which the Egyptians are counting hands. Some of the examples depict the counting event with apparently someone to record the tally behind the one making the pile. Another representation shows someone counting tongues. Yet another depiction from Medinet Habu is of the Egyptians counting phalluses.” (Manor 2021)  So now we have physical proof of the practice illustrated so graphically in the temple murals at Medinet Habu.

“The location, treatment, and possibly the positioning of the severed hands argues against the hypothesis of law-enforcing punishment as the motivation for these acts. When contextualised in a transdisciplinary approach to the archaeological and historic sources, the bioarchaeological evidence presented here suggests that the severed hands were offered as trophies as part of a public event that took place in the palace. They belonged to at least eleven males and possibly one female, which may indicate that women and warfare were not worlds apart. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, the results put forward in this paper provide the first direct bioarchaeological evidence for the ‘gold of honour’ ceremony performed in front of the king’s palace and contribute significantly to the debate over the reconstruction of this ceremony.” (Gresky 2023) This ceremony would have been for the Pharoah to publicly acknowledge the heroism of his troops, and reward them for defeating the enemy. And while this all sounds barbaric to us, let us remember that in North American history during the French and Indian War both sides paid bounties for scalps, a practice that lasted in North America for quite some time.

NOTE: Some images in this posting were retrieved from the internet with a search for public domain photographs. If any of these images are not intended to be public domain, I apologize, and will happily provide the picture credits if the owner will contact me with them. For further information on these reports you should read the original reports at the sites listed below.

REFERENCES:

Bietak, Manfred, 2011, The Archaeology of the Gold of Valour, EES Free University, Berlin.

Gresky, Julia et al., 2023, First osteological evidence of severed hands in Ancient Egypt, 31 March 2023, www.nature.com/scientificreports/. Accessed online 16 May 2023.

Guenot, Marianne, 2023, Tombs filled with severed hands suggest warriors in ancient Egypt mutilated their enemies to get war trophies, 16 May 2023, Yahoo News, https://news.yahoo.com/. Accessed online 16 May 2023.

Manor, Dale Dr., 2021, Parts is Parts, 15 January 2021,  https://www.patternsofevidence.com. Accessed online 16 May 2023.

Ngo, Robin, 2014, Severed Hands: Trophies of War in New Kingdom Egypt, 28 February 2014, Biblical Archaeology Review, March/April 2014.

Wikipedia, Ramesses II, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramesses_II. Accessed online 22 June 2023.

USING THE KNOWLEDGE OF TRADITIONAL HUNTERS/ANIMAL TRACKERS TO IDENTIFY ANCIENT ECOLOGIES BY ANALYSIS OF ROCK ART TRACKS:

 Section of panel RAS 8-O, showing the individual sequential numbers for all engravings, digitally enhanced; height of section: c. 1.8 m; photograph by P. Breunig.

“In recent years, archaeological research has increasingly begun to involve bearers of indigenous knowledge, particularly in ichnology, the science of tracks. Some of this research has analyzed, in much greater detail than had been accessible via the archaeological methods implemented hitherto, Pleistocene footprints preserved in caves in France that were in use during the Upper Paleolithic. We consider the undisputed skills and knowledge of indigenous hunters in tracking animals and humans equally successfully as a methodological toolkit with promising potential for other, related archaeological sources.” (Lenssen-Erz et al. 2023)

Hidden panel of the RAS-8 rock art site. Photograph by P. Breunig.

An indigenous or traditional hunter/gatherer possesses enough detailed knowledge of all the elements of his/her environment to be able to not only identify animals by their tracks, but to make judgements about their size, condition, gender and health by analyzing their tracks. It stands to reason then, that these same experts should be able to analyze representations of animal tracks in a rock art panel, identify the animals they represent, and thus provide data about the prehistoric ecology of that area. This is exactly what was done in a recent study in Namibia.

“Namibia is rich in hunter-gatherer rock art from the Later Stone Age (LSA); this is a tradition of which well-executed engravings of animal tracks in large numbers are characteristic. Research into rock art usually groups these motifs together with geometric signs; at best, therefore, it may provide summary lists of them. To date, the field has completely disregarded the fact that tracks and trackways are a rich medium of information for hunter-gatherers, alongside their deeper, culture-specific connotations. A recent research project, from which this article has emerged, has attempted to fill this research gap; it entailed indigenous tracking experts from the Kalahari analyzing engraved animal tracks and human footprints in a rock art region in central Western Namibia, the Doro! nawas Mountains, which is the site of recently discovered rock art. The experts were able to define the species, sex, age group and exact leg of the specific animal or human depicted in more than 90% of the engravings they analyzed (N = 513). Their work further demonstrates that the variety of fauna is much richer in engraved tracks than in depictions of animals in the same engraving tradition. The analyses reveal patterns that evidently arise from culturally determined preferences. The study represents further confirmation that indigenous knowledge, with its profound insights into a range of particular fields, has the capacity to considerably advance archaeological research.” (Lenssen-Erz et al. 2023)

Rock art panels with animal and human tracks were chosen for analysis by the expert trackers. “The sites examined in this study are situated in the Doro! nawas mountains of Namibia. We chose them primarily for their abundance of track engravings on single panels. In an isolated, crater-like basin 11 km west of /Ui//aes-Twyfelfontein, two out of six rock art sites feature such panels. Sites RAS 6 and RAS 8 as numbered by Frankfurt Goethe University’s research project] are accumulations of sandstone boulders some 250 m from each other, both located on terraces of the basin’s steep south-eastern slope at roughly 800 m asl, while the bottom of the basin sits at 620 m asl.” (Lenssen-Erz et al. 2023)

“For this study, we engaged three indigenous tracking experts, Tsamgao Ciqae, /Ui Kxunta and Thui Thao; they had previously worked on the Tracking in Caves project, but also as professional trackers for commercial hunting. The research at the sites selected for this study, RAS 6 and RAS 8, took place from 18 to 20 September 2018.” (Lenssen-Erz et al. 2023) These indigenous consultant/analysts from the Kalahari not only had extensive experience tracking animals professionally, they had previous experience analyzing animal tracks in rock art in the aforementioned Tracking in Caves project.

Frequently depicted animal tracks. 

Less frequently depicted animal tracks.

Rarely depicted animal tracks.

The sequence in columns represents the order of number of occurrences. The scale of reproduction differs from picture to picture; all tracks are shown in upward direction (irrespective of their actual direction on the rock face); all tracks are digitally enhanced, photographs by P. Breunig.

The results of this consultation are surprisingly positive. “Among the 513 tracks analysed in total, the experts identified 345 quadrupeds and 62 bird tracks (407 in total from 40 different species; Rhinoceros sp. is listed as a taxon, but not counted as a separate species). We divide these into a group of ’frequently’ depicted species (10 depictions or more), a second group of ‘less frequently’ depicted species (between 3 and 9 depictions), and a group of ’rarely’ depicted species (one or two specimens only). The animal track engravings encompass 39 species, including herbivores, felines, other predators, birds and primates.” (Lenssen-Erz et al. 2023)

“Among the animals and birds that feature in these rock art sites in the Doro! nawas mountains, we note a number of species that do not occur in the region today because they require a more humid climate and environment than that currently prevailing; these are blue wildebeest, buffalo, bushbuck, bushpig, vervet monkey, roan antelope, red-billed teal, and, to an extent, eland, marabou, red-crested korhaan and open-billed stork. All other animals and birds that appear in the engravings continue to live in the region today.” (Lenssen-Erz et al. 2023) This difference in extant species can provide valuable clues to changes in the environment there over time.

“An attempt to attribute any definite meaning to the track engravings of the Doro! nawas mountains must remain guesswork and speculation in view of the rich polysemy of tracks that occur worldwide. For the time being we can maintain that the track engravings from the prehistoric hunter-gatherer culture(s) that existed in Namibia appear to have had an epistemic purpose that rested on thorough positivist, empirical knowledge of the life world from which they emerged. Whatever the deeper and symbolic meanings of these engravings, it could only emerge in its entirety through a direct conversation with the artists. It may be that further statistical analysis centering on other, as yet uninvestigated features of the engraved tracks could enable researchers in this field to identify some cognitive groupings of the animals depicted which are neither self-evident nor self-explanatory–both of which are general characteristics of cognitive categorizations from a global point of view. The difficulty we note here is one that arises in the interpretation of all prehistoric art. Consulting present-day indigenous experts can partly mitigate this issue, enabling Western researchers access to greater depth of insight through the outstanding precision and plausibility of indigenous knowledge; yet often, as in this case, the precise meaning and context of the art will remain elusive.” (Lenssen-Erz et al. 2023)

To the extent that the life experiences of the trackers involved resembles the life experiences of the prehistoric peoples who left the rock art being studied, there can be considerable insight into the record that was left on the rocks. There is, however, no way to judge cultural similarities and mythologies so in that regard I would not expect any complete insight as a result. This is certainly a very interesting project and did result in a great deal of exciting data. Congratulations to all involved.

NOTE: Images in this posting came from PLoS ONE and copyrights belong to PLoS ONE and the authors. For further information on this report you should read the original report at the site listed below.

REFERENCE:

Lenssen-Erz T, Pastoors A, Uthmeier T, Ciqae T, Kxunta /, Thao T., 2023, Animal tracks and human footprints in prehistoric hunter-gatherer rock art of the Doro! nawas mountains (Namibia), analysed by present-day indigenous tracking experts. PLoS ONE 18(9): e0289560. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0289560. Accessed online 15 September 2023.

 

NEW DEVELOPMENTS IN OLMEC STUDIES: OLMEC SCULPTURE RETURNED TO CHALCATZINGO, AND NEWLY TRANSLATED OLMEC SCRIPT:

 

Chalcatzingo pyramid, Olmec, Morelo, Mexico. Online image public domain.

How do you steal something which weighs approximately one ton? Although neither of the subjects covered below involve our traditional definitions of petroglyphs, they are both carved stone.

 Olmec carving at Chalcatzingo, Morelo, Mexico. Online image public domain.

“MEXICO CITY (Reuters) – A massive stone sculpture carved by Olmec artists more than 2,000 years ago that evokes ancient religious beliefs has returned to Mexico after decades in the United States in a homecoming cheered by officials and scholars. Known today as the ‘Earth Monster,’ the sculpture was likely taken from central Mexico during the 1960s, spending time in the hands of private collectors as well as on public display before being seized by antiquities trafficking agents working with New York prosecutors.” (Garcia 2023)

Olmec Earth Monster, Photo by Kent Reilly III. Courtesy Mario Córdova via INAH.

“It’s a story straight out of an Indiana Jones movie: A one-ton stone carving made by the Olmecs – one of the first civilizations to appear in Latin America – will be returned to Mexico from its current location in Denver after being recovered by an ‘Antiquities Trafficking Unit’ based in Manhattan, New York. Much like the people who built it, the date for when the ‘Monstruo de la Tierra,’ aka Earth Monster, will be sent home remains a mystery, with Mexican officials promising to provide details on May 19. Marcelo Ebrard, the Mexican Secretary of Foreign Affairs, ‘will discuss that on Friday,’ says Mary Lopez, spokesperson for the Mexican Consulate here in Denver. Information surrounding the stone carving’s location is being kept under wraps to ensure that it’s kept safe and sound before the move. Ebrard and other consulate members will visit Denver to oversee the repatriation of the relic, which landed in the Mile High City after it was stolen from its home in Chalcatzingo, in the Mexican State of Morelos south of Mexico City.” (Kelty 2023)

Sketch of Olmec Earth Monster. Photo by Kent Reilly III. Courtesy Mario Córdova via INAH.

“It was carved from volcanic rock sometime between 800-400 BC during the heyday of the Olmec civilization, one of Mexico’s earliest complex societies with sites mostly clustered around the country’s Gulf Coast. The Olmecs are well-known for their advanced artistic tradition, including colossal head sculptures. The artifact depicts a mythological mountain and its stylized cave entrance in the form of a cross according to Mario Cordova, and Olmec archeologist who traveled to the United States as part of the recovery mission. The mountain was also made to resemble the head of a jaguar, ancient Mexico’s most fearsome predator, with the cave doubling as its open jaws and the entrance to the underworld.” (Garcia 2023) This is really a highly sophisticated example of imagery, combining the cave opening in a mountain side with the open mouth of a jaguar. Another example of the highly sophisticated Mesoamerican cultures.

“’The mountain-cave-mouth symbolic complex acquired a high iconographic value throughout Mesoamerica from very early times, giving rise over the millennia to increasingly complex sets of images’ according to a book written by the father-son scholarly duo Alfredo Lopez Austin and Leonardo Lopez Lujan, Lopez Lujan currently leads the excavations at the Aztec’s holiest shrine in downtown Mexico City.” (Garcia 2023)

“Caves were believed to be important portals to the underworld, and were often associated with water and fertility. Additionally, the images of branches of a bromeliad plant in the corner of the figure’s mouth are iconographic in the Chalcatzingo area.” (Pandey 2023)

But this part of the story ends well, with the mega-artifact returned to its rightful owners.

Harvestermountainlord, Left side, La Mojarra Stele 1.  Image from Wikipedia.

In another area of Olmec studies, however, there is a little more hubbub and emotion. The Olmec possessed a writing system consisting of glyphs, known as Epi-Olmec or Isthmian that look somewhat like Mayan writing, but it has been barely deciphered. In 1997 researchers Justeson and Kaufman claimed that they had successfully translated an Epi-Olmec inscription on Stele 1, in La Moharra in southern Veracruz, Mexico (see references below).

La Mojarra, Stela1 script. Online image public domain.

Closeup of La Mojarra Inscription with a Long Count date. Online image public domain.

“A badly weathered column of hieroglyphs was discovered in November 1995 on the side of Stela 1 from La Mojarra in southern Veracruz, Mexico. Most of the signs in this column have now been identified by nighttime examination under artificial lighting, making possible a nearly complete transcription and translation of this column. This data expands the modest corpus of epi-Olmec hieroglyphic texts and confirms various aspects of the decipherment of the epi-Olmec script.” (Justeson and Kaufman 1997) Except apparently the rest of the field do not agree.

Interior of a Teotihuacan-style mask from an unknown location in southern Mexico adds 101 glyphs to the total known for ancient Isthmian script. Image Michael Coe.

This paper from BYU takes exception to the conclusions of Justeson and Kaufman, casting doubt on their claims and seemingly turns back the process to before their claims of translation of Epi-Olmec. “Translating the Isthmian script, the written form of one of the languages used in Mesoamerica from about 500 B.C. to A.D. 500, would be a tantalizing key to unlocking the mysteries of ancient American societies before the Maya. In 1993, two other scholars reported in the journal Science that they had deciphered the writing system, an assertion disputed in the new study, published in the new issue of the journal Mexicon. ‘This study subjects a claimed decipherment of an ancient New World script to rigid standards of proof, and shows that this script remains undeciphered,’ said Coe, author of the bestselling book ‘Breaking the Maya Code,’ in which he documented how he and others deciphered Maya hieroglyphs. ‘The inscriptions found on the mask amount to a 'test case' for the validity of the claimed decipherment,’ allowing researchers to apply purported meanings of symbols to a new inscription and see if the results make sense.” (BYU 2004)

“Overall, then, the case for the Justeson/Kaufman ‘decipherment’ of Isthmian is decidedly unproven and currently rests on shaky foundations … What it needs, more urgently than some other ‘decipherments’ given its evident linguistic sophistication, is the discovery of a new text or texts as substantial as the one found at La Mojarra in 1986.” (Wikipedia)

So, we still have a lot to learn about Olmec civilization, art, science, and writing, but we certainly have enough to appreciate the height and sophistication of their art, and by implication the richness of their culture.

NOTE: Some images in this posting were retrieved from the internet with a search for public domain photographs. If any of these images are not intended to be public domain, I apologize, and will happily provide the picture credits if the owner will contact me with them. For further information on these reports you should read the original reports at the sites listed below.

REFERENCES:

BYU, 2004, Mesoamerican relic provides new clues to mysterious ancient writing system, 8 January 2004, https://news.byu.edu. Accessed online 3 July 2923.

Garcia, David Alire, 2023, Back in Mexico, ‘Earth Monster’ Sculpture Points to Ancient Beliefs, 26 May 2023, https://www.usnews.com. Accessed online 18 July 2023.

Justeson, John S. and Terrence Kaufman, 1997, A Newly Discovered Column in the Heiroglyphic Text on La Mojarra Stela 1: A Test of the Epi-Olmec Decipherment, Science, Vol. 277, No. 5323, 11 July 1997, pp. 207-210. Accessed online 3 July 2023.

Kelty, Bennitol, 2023, Long-Lost ‘Earth Monster’ Olmec Head Found in Denver, Now Destined for Mexico, 17 May 2023, https://www.westword.com. Accessed 20 May 2023.

News.byu.edu, 2004, Mesoamerican relic provides new clues to mysterious ancient writing system, 8 January 2004, https://news.byu.edu/. Accessed online 3 July 2023.

Pandey, Sahir, 2023, Mexican Government Recovers One Ton Olmec Statue of Earth Monster, 4 April 2023, https://www.ancient-origins.net. Accessed online 18 July 2023.

Wikipedia, Isthmian script, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isthmian_script. Accessed online 3 July 2023.